{ "title": "Onomastikon: A Digital Atlas of Ancient Names", "url": "https://onomastikon.org", "author": "Shriram Rajagopal", "license": "CC BY-SA 4.0", "license_url": "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "source": "https://github.com/shriram-rajagopal/onomastikon", "counts": { "entities": 106, "languages": 27, "names": 649 }, "entities": [ { "id": "adriatic", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/adriatic", "english_name": "The Adriatic Sea", "type": "geographic_feature", "entry_status": "complete", "region": "Between the Italian peninsula and the Balkans", "era_start": -500, "era_end": 600, "summary": "The long arm of the Mediterranean between Italy and the Balkans, named by the Greeks after the Etruscan and Venetic port-city of Adria near the mouth of the Po, since left stranded inland by the silting coast." }, { "id": "aegean", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/aegean", "english_name": "The Aegean Sea", "type": "geographic_feature", "entry_status": "complete", "region": "Between Greece and Anatolia", "era_start": -700, "era_end": 600, "summary": "The island-studded arm of the Mediterranean between Greece and Anatolia, the cradle of Greek civilization, whose Greek name carried half a dozen rival explanations and gave the world the word \"archipelago.\"" }, { "id": "akkad", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/akkad", "english_name": "Akkad", "type": "civilization", "entry_status": "complete", "region": "Northern Mesopotamia", "era_start": -2334, "era_end": -2154, "summary": "The first empire, founded by Sargon of Akkad in the twenty-fourth century BCE around the lost city of Agade.", "featured_image": "/akkad-title.png", "og_image": "/og/akkad-title.png" }, { "id": "alexandria", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/alexandria", "english_name": "Alexandria", "type": "city", "entry_status": "complete", "region": "Lower Egypt", "era_start": -331, "era_end": 1300, "summary": "Alexander's great Egyptian foundation on the Mediterranean, capital of the Ptolemies and seat of the ancient world's largest library, which the Egyptians went on calling by the old village name Rakote." }, { "id": "anatolia", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/anatolia", "english_name": "Anatolia", "type": "region", "entry_status": "complete", "region": "Asia Minor (the peninsula of Turkey)", "era_start": -1400, "era_end": 1300, "summary": "The great peninsula between the Aegean and the Euphrates, the original \"Asia,\" later renamed for the sunrise as Anatolia and known to the Arabs as the land of Rome." }, { "id": "ararat", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/ararat", "english_name": "Ararat", "type": "geographic_feature", "entry_status": "developing", "region": "The Armenian highland", "era_start": -700, "era_end": 1300, "summary": "The mountains where the ark came to rest in the Hebrew Bible, whose name is the same word as the Assyrian kingdom of Urartu, a country's name narrowed onto a single peak that no two traditions agree on." }, { "id": "assyria", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/assyria", "english_name": "Assyria", "type": "civilization", "entry_status": "complete", "region": "Upper Mesopotamia (the upper Tigris)", "era_start": -2025, "era_end": -609, "summary": "The Upper-Mesopotamian empire centered on the city of Aššur, the dominant Near Eastern power of the early first millennium BCE.", "featured_image": "/assyria-title.png", "og_image": "/og/assyria-title.png" }, { "id": "athens", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/athens", "english_name": "Athens", "type": "city", "entry_status": "complete", "region": "Attica, Greece", "era_start": -1400, "era_end": 1300, "summary": "The chief city of Attica and birthplace of Athenian democracy and philosophy, named with its patron goddess Athena, whose name barely changed as it passed into the other languages of the ancient world." }, { "id": "babylon", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/babylon", "english_name": "Babylon", "type": "city", "entry_status": "complete", "region": "Southern Mesopotamia", "era_start": -2300, "era_end": 651, "summary": "The great city of southern Mesopotamia on the Euphrates, capital of Hammurabi and Nebuchadnezzar, whose name spread across the ancient world and gave its kingdom its name." }, { "id": "babylonia", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/babylonia", "english_name": "Babylonia", "type": "civilization", "entry_status": "complete", "region": "Southern Mesopotamia", "era_start": -1894, "era_end": -539, "summary": "The southern Mesopotamian kingdom centered on Babylon, dominant under Hammurabi and again under the Neo-Babylonian empire.", "featured_image": "/babylonia-title.png", "og_image": "/og/babylonia-title.png" }, { "id": "bactria", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/bactria", "english_name": "Bactria", "type": "civilization", "entry_status": "complete", "region": "Central Asia (northern Afghanistan, the upper Oxus)", "era_start": -1500, "era_end": 650, "summary": "The rich land of the upper Oxus, one of the sacred Aryan countries of the Avesta, an Achaemenid satrapy, and the seat of a remarkable Greek kingdom at the far edge of the Hellenistic world.", "featured_image": "/bactria-title.png", "og_image": "/og/bactria-title.png" }, { "id": "black-sea", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/black-sea", "english_name": "The Black Sea", "type": "geographic_feature", "entry_status": "developing", "region": "Between Anatolia, the steppe, and the Caucasus", "era_start": -700, "era_end": 1300, "summary": "The sea the Greeks first called Áxeinos, the Inhospitable, then renamed by anxious euphemism Eúxeinos, the Hospitable, over an Iranian word that had only ever meant dark." }, { "id": "bosporus", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/bosporus", "english_name": "The Bosporus", "type": "geographic_feature", "entry_status": "developing", "region": "Between Europe and Asia, at Byzantium", "era_start": -700, "era_end": 1300, "summary": "The strait at Byzantium between the Black Sea and the Propontis, whose name, \"ox-ford,\" recalls Io, whom Hera turned into a heifer and who swam across it in her long wandering." }, { "id": "byzantium", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/byzantium", "english_name": "Byzantium / Constantinople", "type": "city", "entry_status": "developing", "region": "The Bosphorus, between Europe and Asia (modern Istanbul)", "era_start": -657, "era_end": 600, "summary": "The city on the Bosphorus, founded as the Greek colony of Byzantion, refounded by Constantine in 330 CE as Constantinople, the New Rome and capital of the Eastern empire for a thousand years, and ancestor of Istanbul." }, { "id": "canaan", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/canaan", "english_name": "Canaan", "type": "region", "entry_status": "complete", "region": "The Levant (Syria-Palestine)", "era_start": -1800, "era_end": 1300, "summary": "The Bronze Age name of the Levant, the land of the Canaanites, possibly \"the land of purple\" after its famous dye, remembered as the Promised Land of the Hebrew Bible." }, { "id": "cappadocia", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/cappadocia", "english_name": "Cappadocia", "type": "region", "entry_status": "developing", "region": "Eastern Anatolia", "era_start": -550, "era_end": 600, "summary": "The highland of eastern Anatolia whose name the classical world took ready-made from the Old Persian satrapy Katpatuka, carried into Greek as Kappadokía." }, { "id": "carthage", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/carthage", "english_name": "Carthage", "type": "civilization", "entry_status": "complete", "region": "North Africa (the Gulf of Tunis)", "era_start": -814, "era_end": -146, "summary": "The Phoenician colony on the North African coast that grew into Rome's great maritime rival.", "featured_image": "/carthage-title.png", "og_image": "/og/carthage-title.png" }, { "id": "caspian-sea", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/caspian-sea", "english_name": "The Caspian Sea", "type": "geographic_feature", "entry_status": "developing", "region": "Between the Caucasus, the steppe, and Iran", "era_start": -500, "era_end": 1300, "summary": "The great landlocked sea east of the Caucasus, named in turn for every people who happened to live on its shores, the Caspii, the Hyrcanians, and at last the Khazars." }, { "id": "caucasus", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/caucasus", "english_name": "The Caucasus", "type": "geographic_feature", "entry_status": "developing", "region": "Between the Black Sea and the Caspian", "era_start": -700, "era_end": 1300, "summary": "The mountain wall between the Black and Caspian seas, the edge of the Greek world where Prometheus was chained, whose name Alexander's geographers carried a thousand miles east to the Hindu Kush." }, { "id": "china", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/china", "english_name": "China", "type": "civilization", "entry_status": "developing", "region": "East Asia, the Yellow and Yangtze river valleys", "era_start": -1045, "era_end": 900, "summary": "The Chinese civilization of the Yellow and Yangtze valleys, the Middle Kingdom at the eastern terminus of the Silk Road.", "featured_image": "/china-title.png", "og_image": "/og/china-title.png" }, { "id": "cilicia", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/cilicia", "english_name": "Cilicia", "type": "region", "entry_status": "developing", "region": "Southeastern Anatolia", "era_start": -1400, "era_end": 1300, "summary": "The coastal lowland behind the Taurus, named in three layers, the Bronze-Age kingdom of Kizzuwatna, the Assyrians' paired Ḫilakku and Que, and the Greeks' Kilikía." }, { "id": "cimmerians", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/cimmerians", "english_name": "The Cimmerians", "type": "civilization", "entry_status": "complete", "region": "The Pontic steppe and Anatolia", "era_start": -800, "era_end": -600, "summary": "The first steppe raiders to break into the ancient Near East, Homer's misty Kimmérioi and the Assyrians' Gimirru, whom the Hebrew table of nations remembers as Gomer.", "featured_image": "/cimmerians-title.png", "og_image": "/og/cimmerians-title.png" }, { "id": "corinth", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/corinth", "english_name": "Corinth", "type": "city", "entry_status": "developing", "region": "The Isthmus, between central Greece and the Peloponnese", "era_start": -900, "era_end": 600, "summary": "The wealthy city of the Isthmus, commanding the land bridge and the two seas on either side of it, sacred to Aphrodite, destroyed by Rome and refounded by Caesar, and the seat of one of Paul's great churches." }, { "id": "damascus", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/damascus", "english_name": "Damascus", "type": "city", "entry_status": "complete", "region": "Southern Syria", "era_start": -1500, "era_end": 1300, "summary": "One of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world, the great oasis-capital of inland Syria, whose name runs almost unchanged from the Bronze Age Egyptian and Akkadian records to the Arabic Dimashq." }, { "id": "dead-sea", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/dead-sea", "english_name": "The Dead Sea", "type": "geographic_feature", "entry_status": "complete", "region": "The Jordan Rift, between Judah and Moab", "era_start": -1200, "era_end": 1300, "summary": "The lowest water on earth, too salt and bitter to hold life or carry an endonym, named instead by every neighbor for a different one of its lethal properties: the salt, the floating asphalt, the death, and the destruction of Lot's cities." }, { "id": "deccan", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/deccan", "english_name": "The Deccan", "type": "region", "entry_status": "complete", "region": "The southern peninsula of India, the plateau south of the Vindhyas", "era_start": -400, "era_end": 300, "summary": "The southern peninsula of India, named in Sanskrit Dakṣiṇāpatha, \"the southern road,\" and transcribed by a Greek merchant of the Periplus as Dachinabades, with the gloss that proves he understood it." }, { "id": "egypt", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/egypt", "english_name": "Egypt", "type": "civilization", "entry_status": "complete", "region": "Northeast Africa, Nile Valley", "era_start": -3100, "era_end": -30, "summary": "One of the earliest and longest-lived civilizations of the ancient world, centered on the Nile Valley.", "featured_image": "/egypt-title.png", "og_image": "/og/egypt-title.png" }, { "id": "elam", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/elam", "english_name": "Elam", "type": "civilization", "entry_status": "complete", "region": "Southwestern Iran (Khuzistan and the Zagros)", "era_start": -2700, "era_end": -539, "summary": "The ancient civilization of southwestern Iran, centered on Susa and Anshan, and the great eastern rival of Mesopotamia.", "featured_image": "/elam-title.png", "og_image": "/og/elam-title.png" }, { "id": "ephesus", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/ephesus", "english_name": "Ephesus", "type": "city", "entry_status": "developing", "region": "The Ionian coast of western Anatolia", "era_start": -1400, "era_end": 900, "summary": "The great Ionian Greek city of western Anatolia, home of the Temple of Artemis, likely heir to the Bronze Age Arzawan capital Apaša, a center of early Christianity, and the city of the Council of Ephesus and the Seven Sleepers." }, { "id": "etruscans", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/etruscans", "english_name": "The Etruscans", "type": "civilization", "entry_status": "complete", "region": "Etruria (Tuscany, western central Italy, between the Arno and the Tiber)", "era_start": -700, "era_end": -27, "summary": "The non-Indo-European civilization of pre-Roman central Italy, masters of metalwork, divination, and city-building, who taught the early Romans much and were in the end absorbed by them, leaving a language still only half-understood and a name, through Latin, to Tuscany.", "featured_image": "/etruscans-title.png", "og_image": "/og/etruscans-title.png" }, { "id": "euphrates", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/euphrates", "english_name": "The Euphrates River", "type": "geographic_feature", "entry_status": "complete", "region": "Mesopotamia", "era_start": -3000, "era_end": 1300, "summary": "The western and longer of the two great rivers of Mesopotamia, whose ancient cuneiform name passed faithfully into the Semitic Pĕrāt and Furāt but was reshaped by Greek ears into the \"good-flowing\" Euphrates." }, { "id": "gandhara", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/gandhara", "english_name": "Gandhāra", "type": "region", "entry_status": "developing", "region": "The northwestern gate of India", "era_start": -1500, "era_end": 800, "summary": "The region of Taxila at the northwestern gate of India, named in the Vedas, governed as an Achaemenid satrapy, and sought by the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims as Jiàntuóluó." }, { "id": "ganges", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/ganges", "english_name": "The Ganges River", "type": "geographic_feature", "entry_status": "developing", "region": "Northern India, the Gangetic plain", "era_start": -1500, "era_end": 650, "summary": "The sacred river of northern India, the goddess Gaṅgā, whose name, unlike the Indus's, traveled almost unchanged into every language that learned it." }, { "id": "greece", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/greece", "english_name": "Greece", "type": "civilization", "entry_status": "complete", "region": "Aegean and southern Balkans", "era_start": -800, "era_end": 600, "summary": "The cultural and political community of the Hellenic world.", "featured_image": "/greece-title.png", "og_image": "/og/greece-title.png" }, { "id": "halys", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/halys", "english_name": "The Halys", "type": "geographic_feature", "entry_status": "developing", "region": "Central Anatolia", "era_start": -1600, "era_end": 600, "summary": "The great looping river of central Anatolia, the Hittites' Marassantiya and the Greeks' Hálys, whose crossing the Delphic oracle promised would destroy a great empire, and did, the crosser's own." }, { "id": "hellespont", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/hellespont", "english_name": "The Hellespont", "type": "geographic_feature", "entry_status": "developing", "region": "Between Europe and Asia, at the Troad", "era_start": -700, "era_end": 600, "summary": "The narrow strait between Europe and Asia at the gate of the Troad, named for Helle, the girl who fell from the golden ram into its water as she fled across it." }, { "id": "himalayas", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/himalayas", "english_name": "The Himalayas", "type": "geographic_feature", "entry_status": "developing", "region": "The northern wall of the Indian subcontinent", "era_start": -1500, "era_end": 600, "summary": "The great northern range, the \"abode of snow,\" whose Sanskrit word for snow, himá, the Greeks and Romans caught twice over as Imaus and Emodos, two names Pliny knew meant \"snowy.\"" }, { "id": "hindu-kush", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/hindu-kush", "english_name": "The Hindu Kush", "type": "geographic_feature", "entry_status": "developing", "region": "Between Bactria and India", "era_start": -330, "era_end": 1300, "summary": "The great range between Bactria and India, which Alexander's geographers folded into the Caucasus and the Greeks called the Paropamisus, and which medieval travelers named the Hindu Kush, \"the Hindu-killer.\"" }, { "id": "hittites", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/hittites", "english_name": "The Hittites", "type": "civilization", "entry_status": "complete", "region": "Anatolia (centered on Hattusa)", "era_start": -1650, "era_end": -1180, "summary": "The Bronze Age empire of Anatolia, centered on Hattusa, a great power of Hatti alongside Egypt, Babylonia, and Assyria.", "featured_image": "/hittites-title.png", "og_image": "/og/hittites-title.png" }, { "id": "india", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/india", "english_name": "India", "type": "civilization", "entry_status": "developing", "region": "The Indian subcontinent, south of the Himalayas", "era_start": -1500, "era_end": 1100, "summary": "The civilization of the Indian subcontinent, known to itself as Bhārata and to the world by the name of the river Sindhu, the Indus.", "featured_image": "/india-title.png", "og_image": "/og/india-title.png" }, { "id": "indus", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/indus", "english_name": "The Indus River", "type": "geographic_feature", "entry_status": "complete", "region": "The Punjab and Sindh, northwest of the Indian subcontinent", "era_start": -1500, "era_end": 1300, "summary": "The great river of the northwest, whose Sanskrit name Sindhu, \"the river,\" became the name of a subcontinent, a religion, and a province, and within Sanskrit itself the word for any river or the sea." }, { "id": "ionia", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/ionia", "english_name": "Ionia", "type": "region", "entry_status": "developing", "region": "The Aegean coast of Anatolia", "era_start": -1000, "era_end": 600, "summary": "The Greek-settled coast of western Anatolia, the Iōnía whose people's name, carried east by Persians and Semites, became the whole Near East's standing word for \"Greek.\"" }, { "id": "ionian-sea", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/ionian-sea", "english_name": "The Ionian Sea", "type": "geographic_feature", "entry_status": "complete", "region": "Between southern Italy and Sicily and the western coast of Greece", "era_start": -700, "era_end": 600, "summary": "The arm of the Mediterranean between southern Italy and Greece, named by the Greeks for Io, the maiden turned heifer who swam it fleeing Hera, and not, despite the resemblance, for the Ionians of Anatolia." }, { "id": "iran", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/iran", "english_name": "Iran", "type": "region", "entry_status": "developing", "region": "The Iranian plateau and Central Asia", "era_start": -1000, "era_end": 1300, "summary": "The cultural-Iranian world named not for a place but for a people, the Aryans, from Darius's \"an Aryan of Aryan lineage\" to the Sasanian Ērānšahr, distinct from Pārsa the province." }, { "id": "israel", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/israel", "english_name": "Israel", "type": "civilization", "entry_status": "complete", "region": "The central highlands of Canaan (Samaria)", "era_start": -930, "era_end": -720, "summary": "The northern Israelite kingdom, centered on Samaria, known to the Assyrians as the House of Omri.", "featured_image": "/israel-title.png", "og_image": "/og/israel-title.png" }, { "id": "italia", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/italia", "english_name": "Italia", "type": "region", "entry_status": "complete", "region": "The Italian peninsula", "era_start": -700, "era_end": 1300, "summary": "The Italian peninsula, probably \"the land of calves,\" whose name grew from the southern toe to the whole country as Rome unified it, and which the poets called by a wealth of other names." }, { "id": "jaxartes", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/jaxartes", "english_name": "The Jaxartes", "type": "geographic_feature", "entry_status": "developing", "region": "Central Asia, the steppe frontier", "era_start": -500, "era_end": 1300, "summary": "The northern of the two great rivers of Central Asia, the Greeks' Iaxártēs, the frontier of the Saka steppe and the limit of Alexander's advance, which the Arabs called Sayḥūn after the Pishon of Paradise." }, { "id": "jerusalem", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/jerusalem", "english_name": "Jerusalem", "type": "city", "entry_status": "developing", "region": "The Judaean highlands", "era_start": -1900, "era_end": 600, "summary": "The hill-city holy to three religions, and the most heavily named place in the ancient world." }, { "id": "jordan", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/jordan", "english_name": "The Jordan River", "type": "geographic_feature", "entry_status": "complete", "region": "The Levant", "era_start": -1200, "era_end": 1300, "summary": "The river of the Holy Land, \"the descender,\" which falls from Mount Hermon to the Dead Sea, the lowest point on earth, and whose Hebrew name scripture carried into every Christian language." }, { "id": "judah", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/judah", "english_name": "Judah", "type": "civilization", "entry_status": "complete", "region": "The southern highlands of Canaan, around Jerusalem", "era_start": -930, "era_end": -586, "summary": "The southern Israelite kingdom around Jerusalem, whose name became \"Judaea\" and the root of \"Jew.\"", "featured_image": "/judah-title.png", "og_image": "/og/judah-title.png" }, { "id": "knossos", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/knossos", "english_name": "Knossos", "type": "city", "entry_status": "developing", "region": "North-central Crete, near modern Heraklion", "era_start": -1900, "era_end": 400, "summary": "The greatest of the Minoan palaces and the seat of the legendary King Minos, later a Mycenaean center whose clay archive gives the city its own name in the oldest Greek on record, and a Greek and Roman town thereafter." }, { "id": "latium", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/latium", "english_name": "Latium", "type": "region", "entry_status": "complete", "region": "West-central Italy, around Rome", "era_start": -753, "era_end": 600, "summary": "The plain of west-central Italy around Rome, the homeland of the Latin people and the Latin language, explained by the ancients as the flat land, or as the place where Saturn lay hidden." }, { "id": "lebanon", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/lebanon", "english_name": "Mount Lebanon", "type": "geographic_feature", "entry_status": "developing", "region": "The Levantine coast, behind Phoenicia", "era_start": -2400, "era_end": 1300, "summary": "The cedar mountain behind the Phoenician coast, named across the whole Semitic family from a single root meaning \"white,\" for its snows and pale limestone, and supplying the timber that built temples from Uruk to Jerusalem." }, { "id": "lycia", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/lycia", "english_name": "Lycia", "type": "region", "entry_status": "developing", "region": "Southwestern Anatolia", "era_start": -1400, "era_end": 600, "summary": "The mountainous southwestern corner of Anatolia whose people called themselves Trm̃mili and whom the Greeks, by a name with no resemblance to that one, called the Lycians." }, { "id": "lydia", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/lydia", "english_name": "Lydia", "type": "region", "entry_status": "developing", "region": "Western Anatolia", "era_start": -1200, "era_end": 600, "summary": "The kingdom of Sardis and Croesus, who struck the world's first coins, called Lydía by the Greeks, Sparda by the Persians who made it a satrapy, and Luddu by the Assyrians whose great king its own king Gyges courted." }, { "id": "macedon", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/macedon", "english_name": "Macedon", "type": "civilization", "entry_status": "developing", "region": "The southern Balkans (northern Greece)", "era_start": -700, "era_end": -146, "summary": "The kingdom of the Argead and Antigonid dynasties on the northern edge of the Greek world, whose kings Philip II and Alexander the Great conquered Greece and then the Persian empire, carrying the Greek language and Macedonian arms to the Indus.", "featured_image": "/macedon-title.png", "og_image": "/og/macedon-title.png" }, { "id": "macedonia", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/macedonia", "english_name": "Macedonia", "type": "region", "entry_status": "developing", "region": "The southern Balkans (northern Greece)", "era_start": -700, "era_end": 600, "summary": "The region of the southern Balkans north of Thessaly, homeland of the Macedonian kingdom and, from 146 BCE, a Roman province, the gateway between the Greek south and the Danube." }, { "id": "magna-graecia", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/magna-graecia", "english_name": "Magna Graecia", "type": "region", "entry_status": "complete", "region": "The Greek-colonized coasts of southern Italy", "era_start": -700, "era_end": 300, "summary": "The Greek-colonized south of Italy, called \"Great Greece\" for the density and wealth of its colonies, a second Hellas in the west and the home of Pythagoras." }, { "id": "mediterranean", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/mediterranean", "english_name": "The Mediterranean Sea", "type": "geographic_feature", "entry_status": "complete", "region": "Between Europe, Africa, and Asia", "era_start": -2000, "era_end": 1300, "summary": "The great inland sea at the center of the ancient world, which no people owned and so each named from its own shore, until the name that won described not its master but its place, the sea amid the lands." }, { "id": "memphis", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/memphis", "english_name": "Memphis", "type": "city", "entry_status": "developing", "region": "Lower Egypt", "era_start": -3100, "era_end": 1300, "summary": "The ancient capital of Egypt at the apex of the Nile Delta, seat of the god Ptah, whose temple-name Ḥwt-kꜣ-Ptḥ became the Greek name of Egypt itself." }, { "id": "mesopotamia", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/mesopotamia", "english_name": "Mesopotamia", "type": "region", "entry_status": "developing", "region": "The land between the Tigris and Euphrates", "era_start": -900, "era_end": 700, "summary": "The land between the Tigris and Euphrates, named by everyone for the two rivers and by no one as a single country." }, { "id": "miletus", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/miletus", "english_name": "Miletus", "type": "city", "entry_status": "developing", "region": "The Ionian coast of southwestern Anatolia", "era_start": -1400, "era_end": 700, "summary": "The greatest of the Ionian Greek cities, mother of dozens of colonies and cradle of Greek philosophy and science, with a Bronze Age identity in both the Hittite archives and the Linear B tablets." }, { "id": "minoan-crete", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/minoan-crete", "english_name": "Minoan Crete", "type": "civilization", "entry_status": "developing", "region": "The island of Crete and the Aegean", "era_start": -2700, "era_end": -1100, "summary": "The first great civilization of Europe, the Bronze Age palatial culture of Crete, a sea-power of frescoed palaces and undeciphered writing whose own name for itself is lost, known only by the names its neighbors and successors gave it." }, { "id": "mitanni", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/mitanni", "english_name": "Mitanni", "type": "civilization", "entry_status": "complete", "region": "Upper Mesopotamia and northern Syria (the Khabur)", "era_start": -1500, "era_end": -1300, "summary": "The Hurrian kingdom of upper Mesopotamia, ruled by an Indo-Aryan elite, a great power of the Amarna age.", "featured_image": "/mitanni-title.png", "og_image": "/og/mitanni-title.png" }, { "id": "mycenae", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/mycenae", "english_name": "Mycenae", "type": "city", "entry_status": "developing", "region": "The Argolid, in the northeastern Peloponnese", "era_start": -1700, "era_end": -1100, "summary": "The great citadel of the Argolid whose Bronze Age palatial culture was so dominant that modern scholars named an entire civilization and age after it, the Mycenaean, though the city itself is known to history by little more than its Greek name." }, { "id": "neapolis", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/neapolis", "english_name": "Neapolis", "type": "city", "entry_status": "complete", "region": "Campania, on the bay of Naples, southern Italy", "era_start": -680, "era_end": 600, "summary": "The Greek city on the bay that grew into Naples, founded as a \"new city\" beside an older settlement named Parthenope for the siren whose body washed ashore there." }, { "id": "nile", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/nile", "english_name": "The Nile River", "type": "geographic_feature", "entry_status": "complete", "region": "Northeast Africa", "era_start": -3000, "era_end": 600, "summary": "The longest river in the world and the geographic foundation of pharaonic Egypt." }, { "id": "nineveh", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/nineveh", "english_name": "Nineveh", "type": "city", "entry_status": "complete", "region": "Northern Mesopotamia (Assyria)", "era_start": -2500, "era_end": 1300, "summary": "The last and greatest capital of Assyria, on the Tigris opposite modern Mosul, the wicked city of Jonah and Nahum, whose mound still holds the Tomb of Jonah." }, { "id": "olympus", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/olympus", "english_name": "Mount Olympus", "type": "geographic_feature", "entry_status": "complete", "region": "The Thessaly–Macedonia border, northern Greece", "era_start": -800, "era_end": 600, "summary": "The highest mountain in Greece, on the border of Thessaly and Macedonia, revered as the dwelling of the gods; its pre-Greek name, meaning roughly \"the high place,\" was given to many peaks but reserved, in its most famous instance, for the home of the Olympians." }, { "id": "oxus", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/oxus", "english_name": "The Oxus", "type": "geographic_feature", "entry_status": "developing", "region": "Central Asia, between Bactria and Sogdiana", "era_start": -600, "era_end": 1300, "summary": "The great river of Central Asia, the Avestan Vaxšu and its river-god, the northern wall of Bactria, which the Arab geographers renamed Jayḥūn after the Gihon of Paradise." }, { "id": "parthia", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/parthia", "english_name": "Parthia", "type": "civilization", "entry_status": "complete", "region": "Northeastern Iran", "era_start": -550, "era_end": 650, "summary": "The northeastern Iranian land whose Arsacid dynasty built an empire that rivalled Rome, and whose name, by a sound change, became \"Pahlavi.\"", "featured_image": "/parthia-title.png", "og_image": "/og/parthia-title.png" }, { "id": "pella", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/pella", "english_name": "Pella", "type": "city", "entry_status": "complete", "region": "Macedonia, northern Greece", "era_start": -400, "era_end": 600, "summary": "The royal capital of Macedonia from which Philip II and Alexander ruled, the birthplace of Alexander the Great, a planned city of mosaics on the Macedonian plain." }, { "id": "persepolis", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/persepolis", "english_name": "Persepolis", "type": "city", "entry_status": "complete", "region": "Fārs (Persis), Iran", "era_start": -518, "era_end": 400, "summary": "The ceremonial capital of the Achaemenid Persian empire, which the Persians called simply Pārsa, the name of Persia itself, and which the Greeks named Persépolis, burned by Alexander in 330 BCE." }, { "id": "persia", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/persia", "english_name": "Persia", "type": "civilization", "entry_status": "complete", "region": "Iranian plateau and the wider Near East", "era_start": -550, "era_end": 650, "summary": "The Achaemenid Empire and the political tradition of pre-Islamic Iran.", "featured_image": "/persia-title.png", "og_image": "/og/persia-title.png" }, { "id": "persian-gulf", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/persian-gulf", "english_name": "The Persian Gulf", "type": "geographic_feature", "entry_status": "complete", "region": "Between Mesopotamia, Arabia, and Iran", "era_start": -2300, "era_end": 1300, "summary": "The \"Lower Sea\" at the foot of the Tigris and Euphrates, the gulf every Mesopotamian king from Sargon onward measured his reach by, and which the wider world, naming it for the land on its far shore, came to call Persian." }, { "id": "philistia", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/philistia", "english_name": "Philistia", "type": "region", "entry_status": "developing", "region": "The southern Levantine coast", "era_start": -1200, "era_end": 1300, "summary": "The coastal plain of the Philistines, one Sea People whose name, Egyptian Peleset and Hebrew Pᵊlešet, the Greeks stretched into Palaistínē and so, in the end, into the modern name of the whole land." }, { "id": "phoenicia", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/phoenicia", "english_name": "Phoenicia", "type": "civilization", "entry_status": "complete", "region": "The Levantine coast (modern Lebanon and coastal Syria)", "era_start": -1200, "era_end": -300, "summary": "The seafaring Canaanite city-states of the Levantine coast, whose Greek name comes from the purple dye they traded.", "featured_image": "/phoenicia-title.png", "og_image": "/og/phoenicia-title.png" }, { "id": "phrygia", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/phrygia", "english_name": "Phrygia", "type": "region", "entry_status": "developing", "region": "West-central Anatolia", "era_start": -1200, "era_end": 600, "summary": "The Anatolian kingdom of Gordion and Midas, known to the Greeks as Phrygía and to the Assyrians, who dealt directly with its king Mita, as Mušku, the same monarch the Hebrew table of nations remembers as Meshech." }, { "id": "po", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/po", "english_name": "The Po River", "type": "geographic_feature", "entry_status": "complete", "region": "Northern Italy (the plain of the Padan basin)", "era_start": -600, "era_end": 600, "summary": "The great river of northern Italy, draining the plain between the Alps and the Apennines, known to Rome as the Padus and to Greek poets, who mapped onto it the myth of the amber-river Eridanos, as the Ēridanós." }, { "id": "punjab", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/punjab", "english_name": "The Punjab", "type": "region", "entry_status": "developing", "region": "The plain of the five rivers, northwestern India", "era_start": -1500, "era_end": 1300, "summary": "The land of five rivers east of the Indus, the Vedic Sapta Sindhu of \"seven rivers\" narrowed to the Sanskrit Pañcanada of \"five,\" which Persian rendered exactly as Panjāb." }, { "id": "red-sea", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/red-sea", "english_name": "The Red Sea", "type": "geographic_feature", "entry_status": "developing", "region": "Between Egypt, Arabia, and the Horn of Africa", "era_start": -1200, "era_end": 1300, "summary": "The sea of the Exodus and the spice route, which the Hebrews named for the reeds at its head and the Greeks for a redness no one could quite explain, the two names colliding when the Septuagint turned the Sea of Reeds into the Red Sea." }, { "id": "rome", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/rome", "english_name": "Rome", "type": "civilization", "entry_status": "complete", "region": "Central Italy and, at its height, the Mediterranean basin", "era_start": -753, "era_end": 476, "summary": "The city on the Tiber that grew from a settlement in Latium into the republic and empire that dominated the ancient Mediterranean.", "featured_image": "/rome-title.png", "og_image": "/og/rome-title.png" }, { "id": "scythia", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/scythia", "english_name": "Scythia", "type": "civilization", "entry_status": "developing", "region": "The Eurasian steppe, from the Black Sea to the Tian Shan", "era_start": -800, "era_end": 300, "summary": "The great arc of Iranian horse-nomads of the steppe, the Greeks' Scythians and the Persians' Saka, whose Assyrian name Iškuza surfaces in the Hebrew Bible as Ashkenaz.", "featured_image": "/scythia-title.png", "og_image": "/og/scythia-title.png" }, { "id": "sicily", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/sicily", "english_name": "Sicily", "type": "region", "entry_status": "complete", "region": "The largest island of the Mediterranean, off the toe of Italy", "era_start": -800, "era_end": 1100, "summary": "The great triangular island at the center of the Mediterranean, named in turn for each people who held it, the Sicani, the Sikels, and the Greeks, and again for its three-cornered shape, before becoming a Roman province and an Arab emirate." }, { "id": "sidon", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/sidon", "english_name": "Sidon", "type": "city", "entry_status": "developing", "region": "Phoenicia (coast of Lebanon)", "era_start": -1400, "era_end": 1300, "summary": "The oldest of the great Phoenician cities, \"the firstborn of Canaan,\" a center of purple dye and glass, whose name kept its Semitic ṣ where its sister Tyre's was turned to a t by the Greeks." }, { "id": "sindh", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/sindh", "english_name": "Sindh", "type": "region", "entry_status": "developing", "region": "The lower Indus valley", "era_start": -1500, "era_end": 1300, "summary": "The lower Indus valley, the Sindhu of the Sanskrit and the Hinduš of the Persians, which the Arabs called al-Sind and so split off, in a single consonant, from al-Hind, India itself." }, { "id": "sogdiana", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/sogdiana", "english_name": "Sogdiana", "type": "region", "entry_status": "developing", "region": "Central Asia, between the Oxus and the Jaxartes", "era_start": -550, "era_end": 1300, "summary": "The land of Samarkand between the Oxus and the Jaxartes, named in the oldest Iranian scripture and the Achaemenid rosters alike, Old Persian Suguda and Greek Sogdianḗ." }, { "id": "sparta", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/sparta", "english_name": "Sparta", "type": "city", "entry_status": "developing", "region": "Laconia, Greece", "era_start": -1200, "era_end": 600, "summary": "The great military city-state of the Peloponnese, known equally by two names, Sparta the town and Lacedaemon the state, rivals of Athens and the power that broke its empire." }, { "id": "sumer", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/sumer", "english_name": "Sumer", "type": "civilization", "entry_status": "complete", "region": "Southern Mesopotamia", "era_start": -3500, "era_end": -1900, "summary": "The earliest urban civilization, in the southern Mesopotamian floodplain.", "featured_image": "/sumer-title.png", "og_image": "/og/sumer-title.png" }, { "id": "susa", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/susa", "english_name": "Susa", "type": "city", "entry_status": "complete", "region": "Susiana (Khuzistan, southwestern Iran)", "era_start": -4200, "era_end": 1300, "summary": "The ancient Elamite capital and later Achaemenid royal city, whose Elamite name was adopted by nearly every neighboring civilization." }, { "id": "syracuse", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/syracuse", "english_name": "Syracuse", "type": "city", "entry_status": "developing", "region": "The eastern coast of Sicily", "era_start": -733, "era_end": 900, "summary": "The greatest Greek city of Sicily, a Corinthian colony on the island of Ortygia that grew into a Mediterranean power, home of Archimedes, a prize fought over by Athens, Carthage, and Rome, and a stop on Paul's voyage to Rome." }, { "id": "syria", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/syria", "english_name": "Syria", "type": "region", "entry_status": "developing", "region": "The Levant and inland Syria", "era_start": -1100, "era_end": 1300, "summary": "The land its own people called Aram and the outside world called Syria, two names for one region whose Greek form is most likely Assyria worn down, the Mesopotamian power's name stretched west over the Aramean country." }, { "id": "tarentum", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/tarentum", "english_name": "Tarentum", "type": "city", "entry_status": "complete", "region": "Apulia, on the gulf of Taranto, southern Italy", "era_start": -706, "era_end": 600, "summary": "The only colony Sparta ever sent out, the great Greek city of the Italian heel, named for the hero Taras whom a dolphin saved, rich on wool and purple, and the last Greek power in Italy to fall to Rome." }, { "id": "tarquinia", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/tarquinia", "english_name": "Tarquinia", "type": "city", "entry_status": "developing", "region": "Southern Etruria, on the coast of central Italy", "era_start": -750, "era_end": 100, "summary": "One of the foremost cities of the Etruscan league, famous for its painted tombs, and the home of the Tarquin dynasty that ruled early Rome, whose Etruscan name survives in an inscription naming a Tarquin \"of Rome.\"" }, { "id": "taurus", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/taurus", "english_name": "The Taurus", "type": "geographic_feature", "entry_status": "developing", "region": "Southern Anatolia", "era_start": -500, "era_end": 1300, "summary": "The mountain wall that shuts off the Anatolian plateau from the southern sea, \"the Bull\" to the Greeks, which ancient geography made the very axis along which it divided Asia." }, { "id": "thebes", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/thebes", "english_name": "Thebes", "type": "city", "entry_status": "complete", "region": "Boeotia, central Greece", "era_start": -1400, "era_end": 600, "summary": "The chief city of Boeotia, the seven-gated city of Greek myth, home of Cadmus and Oedipus, a great Mycenaean palace attested in its own Linear B archive, and not to be confused with the hundred-gated Thebes of Egypt." }, { "id": "tiber", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/tiber", "english_name": "The Tiber River", "type": "geographic_feature", "entry_status": "complete", "region": "Latium and Etruria, central Italy", "era_start": -753, "era_end": 600, "summary": "The river of Rome, the third-longest in Italy, which rises in the Apennines and runs through the city to the sea, known to the Romans as Tiberis and, in legend, by the older name Albula." }, { "id": "tigris", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/tigris", "english_name": "The Tigris River", "type": "geographic_feature", "entry_status": "complete", "region": "Mesopotamia", "era_start": -3000, "era_end": 1300, "summary": "The swifter of the two great rivers of Mesopotamia, whose Sumerian name \"the swift river\" the Persians reanalyzed as \"arrow,\" giving the West its name Tigris while the East kept the old Dijla." }, { "id": "troy", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/troy", "english_name": "Troy", "type": "city", "entry_status": "complete", "region": "The Troad, northwest Anatolia", "era_start": -1700, "era_end": 500, "summary": "The citadel of Homer's Iliad at Hisarlık in northwest Anatolia, known to the Greeks by two names, Ilios and Troia, both of which reach back to the Bronze Age Hittite records as Wiluša and Truwiša." }, { "id": "tyre", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/tyre", "english_name": "Tyre", "type": "city", "entry_status": "developing", "region": "Phoenicia (coast of Lebanon)", "era_start": -1400, "era_end": 1300, "summary": "The great Phoenician island-city, founder of Carthage and source of the royal purple dye, whose name means \"rock\" and split, in passing to the Greeks, between the Semitic Ṣūr and the Western Tyre." }, { "id": "ur", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/ur", "english_name": "Ur", "type": "city", "entry_status": "complete", "region": "Southern Mesopotamia", "era_start": -2600, "era_end": -500, "summary": "The Sumerian city of the moon-god Nanna, seat of the Third Dynasty of Ur, remembered in the Bible as Abraham's birthplace, \"Ur of the Chaldees.\"" }, { "id": "uruk", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/uruk", "english_name": "Uruk", "type": "city", "entry_status": "developing", "region": "Southern Mesopotamia", "era_start": -4000, "era_end": 300, "summary": "The great Sumerian city of Gilgamesh and the goddess Inanna, the world's first true city and the birthplace of writing, known to the Bible as Erech and to the Greeks as Orchoē." }, { "id": "veii", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/veii", "english_name": "Veii", "type": "city", "entry_status": "complete", "region": "Southern Etruria, just north of Rome", "era_start": -900, "era_end": -100, "summary": "The southernmost of the great Etruscan cities, only a dozen miles from Rome and its fiercest early rival, captured and destroyed by Rome in 396 BCE after a ten-year siege, its own Etruscan name barely surviving." }, { "id": "xiongnu", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/xiongnu", "english_name": "The Xiongnu", "type": "civilization", "entry_status": "developing", "region": "The Mongolian steppe, north of China", "era_start": -300, "era_end": 100, "summary": "The first great steppe empire, the nomad confederation north of Han China against which the Great Wall was raised, known almost entirely by the names the Chinese gave them.", "featured_image": "/xiongnu-title.png", "og_image": "/og/xiongnu-title.png" }, { "id": "yamuna", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/yamuna", "english_name": "The Yamuna River", "type": "geographic_feature", "entry_status": "complete", "region": "Northern India, the Gangetic plain", "era_start": -1500, "era_end": 650, "summary": "The sister-river of the Ganges, the goddess Yamunā and the river of Kṛṣṇa's Vrindavan, whose name, unlike the Ganges's, fragmented in every language that met it." }, { "id": "yuezhi", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/yuezhi", "english_name": "The Yuezhi", "type": "civilization", "entry_status": "developing", "region": "From Gansu to Bactria", "era_start": -200, "era_end": 100, "summary": "The nomads the Xiongnu drove out of Gansu, who swept west to take Bactria from the Greeks and founded the Kushan empire, the Chinese Yuèzhī and the Greeks' Tócharoi.", "featured_image": "/yuezhi-title.png", "og_image": "/og/yuezhi-title.png" } ], "languages": [ { "id": "akkadian", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/languages/akkadian", "english_name": "Akkadian", "native_name": "𒀝𒅗𒁺𒌑", "language_family": "Afro-Asiatic (East Semitic)", "script": "Sumero-Akkadian cuneiform", "lang_code": "akk", "era_start": -2500, "era_end": -100, "direction": "ltr", "featured_image": "/languages/akkadian-card.png", "og_image": "/og/languages/akkadian-card.png" }, { "id": "ancient-greek", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/languages/ancient-greek", "english_name": "Ancient Greek", "native_name": "Ἑλληνική", "language_family": "Indo-European (Hellenic)", "script": "Greek alphabet", "lang_code": "grc", "era_start": -800, "era_end": 600, "direction": "ltr", "featured_image": "/languages/ancient-greek-card.png", "og_image": "/og/languages/ancient-greek-card.png" }, { "id": "avestan", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/languages/avestan", "english_name": "Avestan", "native_name": "𐬀𐬌𐬭𐬌𐬌𐬀𐬥𐬀", "language_family": "Indo-European (Old Iranian)", "script": "Avestan alphabet", "lang_code": "ave", "era_start": -1500, "era_end": -400, "direction": "rtl", "featured_image": "/languages/avestan-card.png", "og_image": "/og/languages/avestan-card.png" }, { "id": "biblical-hebrew", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/languages/biblical-hebrew", "english_name": "Biblical Hebrew", "native_name": "עִבְרִית", "language_family": "Afro-Asiatic (Northwest Semitic)", "script": "Hebrew alphabet", "lang_code": "hbo", "era_start": -1200, "era_end": -100, "direction": "rtl", "featured_image": "/languages/biblical-hebrew-card.png", "og_image": "/og/languages/biblical-hebrew-card.png" }, { "id": "classical-arabic", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/languages/classical-arabic", "english_name": "Classical Arabic", "native_name": "العربية الفصحى", "language_family": "Afro-Asiatic (Central Semitic)", "script": "Arabic alphabet", "lang_code": "ar", "era_start": 500, "era_end": 1300, "direction": "rtl", "featured_image": "/languages/classical-arabic-card.png", "og_image": "/og/languages/classical-arabic-card.png" }, { "id": "classical-chinese", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/languages/classical-chinese", "english_name": "Classical Chinese", "native_name": "文言", "language_family": "Sino-Tibetan (Sinitic)", "script": "Chinese characters", "lang_code": "lzh", "era_start": -500, "era_end": 600, "direction": "ltr", "featured_image": "/languages/classical-chinese-card.png", "og_image": "/og/languages/classical-chinese-card.png" }, { "id": "coptic", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/languages/coptic", "english_name": "Coptic", "native_name": "ϯⲙⲉⲧⲣⲉⲙⲛ̄ⲭⲏⲙⲓ", "language_family": "Afro-Asiatic (Egyptian branch)", "script": "Coptic alphabet", "lang_code": "cop", "era_start": 200, "era_end": 1300, "direction": "ltr", "featured_image": "/languages/coptic-card.png", "og_image": "/og/languages/coptic-card.png" }, { "id": "demotic", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/languages/demotic", "english_name": "Demotic", "native_name": "𓏞𓈖𓈙𓂝𓏏", "language_family": "Afro-Asiatic (Egyptian branch)", "script": "Demotic", "lang_code": "egy", "era_start": -650, "era_end": 452, "direction": "rtl", "featured_image": "/languages/demotic-card.png", "og_image": "/og/languages/demotic-card.png" }, { "id": "egyptian", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/languages/egyptian", "english_name": "Egyptian (Middle Egyptian)", "native_name": "𓂋𓈖𓆎𓅓𓏏", "language_family": "Afro-Asiatic", "script": "Egyptian hieroglyphs", "lang_code": "egy", "era_start": -2000, "era_end": -1300, "direction": "ltr", "featured_image": "/languages/egyptian-card.png", "og_image": "/og/languages/egyptian-card.png" }, { "id": "elamite", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/languages/elamite", "english_name": "Elamite", "native_name": "𒂊𒋾𒈨𒈦", "language_family": "Language isolate", "script": "Elamite cuneiform", "lang_code": "elx", "era_start": -2500, "era_end": -350, "direction": "ltr", "featured_image": "/languages/elamite-card.png", "og_image": "/og/languages/elamite-card.png" }, { "id": "etruscan", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/languages/etruscan", "english_name": "Etruscan", "native_name": "𐌓𐌀𐌑𐌍𐌀", "language_family": "Tyrsenian (non-Indo-European)", "script": "Etruscan alphabet", "lang_code": "ett", "era_start": -700, "era_end": 50, "direction": "rtl", "featured_image": "/languages/etruscan-card.png", "og_image": "/og/languages/etruscan-card.png" }, { "id": "geez", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/languages/geez", "english_name": "Geʽez", "native_name": "ግዕዝ", "language_family": "Afro-Asiatic (South Semitic)", "script": "Ethiopic", "lang_code": "gez", "era_start": 350, "era_end": 1500, "direction": "ltr", "featured_image": "/languages/geez-card.png", "og_image": "/og/languages/geez-card.png" }, { "id": "hittite", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/languages/hittite", "english_name": "Hittite", "native_name": "𒉈𒅆𒇷", "language_family": "Indo-European (Anatolian)", "script": "Sumero-Akkadian cuneiform", "lang_code": "hit", "era_start": -1650, "era_end": -1180, "direction": "ltr", "featured_image": "/languages/hittite-card.png", "og_image": "/og/languages/hittite-card.png" }, { "id": "hurrian", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/languages/hurrian", "english_name": "Hurrian", "native_name": "𒄷𒌨𒊑", "language_family": "Hurro-Urartian", "script": "Cuneiform", "lang_code": "xhu", "era_start": -2300, "era_end": -1000, "direction": "ltr", "featured_image": "/languages/hurrian-card.png", "og_image": "/og/languages/hurrian-card.png" }, { "id": "imperial-aramaic", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/languages/imperial-aramaic", "english_name": "Imperial Aramaic", "native_name": "ארמיא", "language_family": "Afro-Asiatic (Northwest Semitic)", "script": "Aramaic alphabet", "lang_code": "arc", "era_start": -700, "era_end": -200, "direction": "rtl", "featured_image": "/languages/imperial-aramaic-card.png", "og_image": "/og/languages/imperial-aramaic-card.png" }, { "id": "jewish-babylonian-aramaic", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/languages/jewish-babylonian-aramaic", "english_name": "Jewish Babylonian Aramaic", "native_name": "בבל", "language_family": "Afro-Asiatic (Eastern Aramaic)", "script": "Hebrew square script", "lang_code": "tmr", "era_start": 200, "era_end": 1000, "direction": "rtl", "featured_image": "/languages/jewish-babylonian-aramaic-card.png", "og_image": "/og/languages/jewish-babylonian-aramaic-card.png" }, { "id": "latin", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/languages/latin", "english_name": "Latin", "native_name": "Lingua Latina", "language_family": "Indo-European (Italic)", "script": "Latin alphabet", "lang_code": "la", "era_start": -700, "era_end": 600, "direction": "ltr", "featured_image": "/languages/latin-card.png", "og_image": "/og/languages/latin-card.png" }, { "id": "lycian", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/languages/lycian", "english_name": "Lycian", "native_name": "𐊗𐊕𐊐𐊎𐊆𐊍𐊆", "language_family": "Indo-European (Anatolian)", "script": "Lycian alphabet", "lang_code": "xlc", "era_start": -500, "era_end": -300, "direction": "ltr", "featured_image": "/languages/lycian-card.png", "og_image": "/og/languages/lycian-card.png" }, { "id": "middle-persian", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/languages/middle-persian", "english_name": "Middle Persian", "native_name": "𐭯𐭠𐭫𐭮𐭩𐭪", "language_family": "Indo-European (Iranian)", "script": "Pahlavi", "lang_code": "pal", "era_start": -300, "era_end": 900, "direction": "rtl", "featured_image": "/languages/middle-persian-card.png", "og_image": "/og/languages/middle-persian-card.png" }, { "id": "mycenaean-greek", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/languages/mycenaean-greek", "english_name": "Mycenaean Greek", "language_family": "Indo-European (Hellenic)", "script": "Linear B", "lang_code": "gmy", "era_start": -1450, "era_end": -1200, "direction": "ltr" }, { "id": "old-persian", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/languages/old-persian", "english_name": "Old Persian", "native_name": "𐎠𐎼𐎡𐎹", "language_family": "Indo-European (Iranian)", "script": "Old Persian cuneiform", "lang_code": "peo", "era_start": -550, "era_end": -330, "direction": "ltr", "featured_image": "/languages/old-persian-card.png", "og_image": "/og/languages/old-persian-card.png" }, { "id": "parthian", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/languages/parthian", "english_name": "Parthian", "native_name": "𐭐𐭓𐭕𐭅", "language_family": "Indo-European (Iranian)", "script": "Inscriptional Parthian", "lang_code": "xpr", "era_start": -250, "era_end": 400, "direction": "rtl", "featured_image": "/languages/parthian-card.png", "og_image": "/og/languages/parthian-card.png" }, { "id": "phoenician", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/languages/phoenician", "english_name": "Phoenician", "native_name": "𐤃𐤁𐤓𐤉𐤌 𐤊𐤍𐤏𐤍𐤉𐤌", "language_family": "Afro-Asiatic (Northwest Semitic)", "script": "Phoenician alphabet", "lang_code": "phn", "era_start": -1050, "era_end": -150, "direction": "rtl", "featured_image": "/languages/phoenician-card.png", "og_image": "/og/languages/phoenician-card.png" }, { "id": "sanskrit", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/languages/sanskrit", "english_name": "Sanskrit", "native_name": "संस्कृतम्", "language_family": "Indo-European (Indo-Aryan)", "script": "Devanagari (and others)", "lang_code": "sa", "era_start": -1500, "era_end": 1200, "direction": "ltr", "featured_image": "/languages/sanskrit-card.png", "og_image": "/og/languages/sanskrit-card.png" }, { "id": "sumerian", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/languages/sumerian", "english_name": "Sumerian", "native_name": "𒅴𒂠", "language_family": "Language isolate", "script": "Sumerian cuneiform", "lang_code": "sux", "era_start": -3100, "era_end": -100, "direction": "ltr", "featured_image": "/languages/sumerian-card.png", "og_image": "/og/languages/sumerian-card.png" }, { "id": "syriac", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/languages/syriac", "english_name": "Syriac", "native_name": "ܣܘܪܝܝܐ", "language_family": "Afro-Asiatic (Northwest Semitic)", "script": "Syriac alphabet", "lang_code": "syc", "era_start": 100, "era_end": 700, "direction": "rtl", "featured_image": "/languages/syriac-card.png", "og_image": "/og/languages/syriac-card.png" }, { "id": "ugaritic", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/languages/ugaritic", "english_name": "Ugaritic", "native_name": "𐎜𐎂𐎗𐎚", "language_family": "Afro-Asiatic (Northwest Semitic)", "script": "Ugaritic cuneiform alphabet", "lang_code": "uga", "era_start": -1400, "era_end": -1190, "direction": "ltr", "featured_image": "/languages/ugaritic-card.png", "og_image": "/og/languages/ugaritic-card.png" } ], "names": [ { "id": "adriatic-ancient-greek-adrias", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/adriatic#ancient-greek-adrias", "civilization": "adriatic", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Ἀδρίας", "transliteration": "ho Adrías", "ipa": "/aˈdri.as/", "literal_meaning": "the Adriatic (sea of the city Adria)", "family": "adrias", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -500, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Herodotus, *Histories* 1.163, 4.33, 5.9; Strabo, *Geography* 5.1.8." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. Ἀδρίας." } ] }, { "id": "adriatic-latin-hadriaticum", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/adriatic#latin-hadriaticum", "civilization": "adriatic", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Hadriaticum", "transliteration": "Hadriāticum", "ipa": "/had.riˈaː.ti.kum/", "literal_meaning": "the Adriatic Sea", "family": "adrias", "derived_from": "adriatic-ancient-greek-adrias", "era_start": -100, "era_end": 500, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Horace, *Odes* 1.3.15, 3.9.22–23 (the stormy *Hadria*); Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.vv. *Hadria*, *Hadriaticus*." } ] }, { "id": "aegean-ancient-greek-aigaion", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/aegean#ancient-greek-aigaion", "civilization": "aegean", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Αἰγαῖον", "transliteration": "Aigaîon", "ipa": "/ai̯.ˈɡai̯.on/", "literal_meaning": "the Aegean (etymology disputed; perhaps from aiges, \"waves\")", "family": "aigaion", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -700, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "disputed", "sources": [ { "citation": "Herodotus, *Histories* 2.97, 7.55; Strabo, *Geography* 8.7.4." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. *Αἰγαῖος*." } ] }, { "id": "aegean-latin-aegaeum", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/aegean#latin-aegaeum", "civilization": "aegean", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Aegaeum", "transliteration": "Mare Aegaeum", "ipa": "/ˈma.re ai̯ˈɡae̯.um/", "literal_meaning": "the Aegean Sea", "family": "aigaion", "derived_from": "aegean-ancient-greek-aigaion", "era_start": -50, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 4.51; Horace, *Odes* 2.16.1–2." }, { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Aegaeus*." } ] }, { "id": "akkad-akkadian-akkadu", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/akkad#akkadian-akkadu", "civilization": "akkad", "language": "akkadian", "original_text": "𒌵𒆠", "transliteration": "Akkadû", "ipa": "/akkaˈduː/", "literal_meaning": "Akkad; the land of Akkad (māt Akkadî)", "family": "akkad", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -2334, "era_end": -539, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Reallexikon der Assyriologie und Vorderasiatischen Archäologie*, s.v. *Akkade*." }, { "citation": "*Chicago Assyrian Dictionary* (CAD), University of Chicago, Vol. A/1, s.v. *Akkadû*." }, { "citation": "Frayne, Douglas R. *Sargonic and Gutian Periods (2334–2113 BC)*. Royal Inscriptions of Mesopotamia, Early Periods 2. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1993." } ] }, { "id": "akkad-biblical-hebrew-akkad", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/akkad#biblical-hebrew-akkad", "civilization": "akkad", "language": "biblical-hebrew", "original_text": "אַכַּד", "transliteration": "ʾAkkaḏ", "ipa": "/ʔakˈkad/", "literal_meaning": "Akkad (Accad)", "family": "akkad", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -900, "era_end": -200, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament* (HALOT), Leiden: Brill, 1994–2000, s.v. *ʾakkaḏ*." }, { "citation": "Genesis 10:10." } ] }, { "id": "akkad-sumerian-agade", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/akkad#sumerian-agade", "civilization": "akkad", "language": "sumerian", "original_text": "𒀀𒂵𒉈𒆠", "transliteration": "Agade", "ipa": null, "literal_meaning": "Agade (the city of Akkad)", "family": "akkad", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -2334, "era_end": -1700, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Reallexikon der Assyriologie und Vorderasiatischen Archäologie*, s.v. *Akkade*." }, { "citation": "Cooper, Jerrold S. *The Curse of Agade*. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983." }, { "citation": "*The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature* (ETCSL), 'The Cursing of Agade'." } ] }, { "id": "alexandria-ancient-greek-alexandreia", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/alexandria#ancient-greek-alexandreia", "civilization": "alexandria", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Ἀλεξάνδρεια", "transliteration": "Alexandreia", "ipa": "/a.lek.ˈsan.drei.a/", "literal_meaning": "(the city) of Alexander", "family": "alexandreia", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -331, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Strabo, *Geography* 17.1.6–10." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. *Ἀλεξάνδρεια*." } ] }, { "id": "alexandria-ancient-greek-rhakotis", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/alexandria#ancient-greek-rhakotis", "civilization": "alexandria", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Ῥακῶτις", "transliteration": "Rhakōtis", "ipa": "/r̥a.ˈkɔː.tis/", "literal_meaning": "Rhakotis (the Egyptian quarter of Alexandria; from Egyptian Rꜥ-qd)", "family": "rakote", "derived_from": "alexandria-egyptian-raqed", "era_start": -300, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Strabo, *Geography* 17.1.6." }, { "citation": "Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 5.62." } ] }, { "id": "alexandria-classical-arabic-iskandariyya", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/alexandria#classical-arabic-iskandariyya", "civilization": "alexandria", "language": "classical-arabic", "original_text": "الإسكندرية", "transliteration": "al-Iskandariyya", "ipa": "/al.is.kan.daˈrij.ja/", "literal_meaning": "Alexandria (the city of Iskandar/Alexander)", "family": "alexandreia", "derived_from": "alexandria-syriac-aleksandriya", "era_start": 640, "era_end": 1300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Yāqūt al-Ḥamawī. *Muʿjam al-Buldān*, s.v. الإسكندرية." }, { "citation": "Lane, Edward William. *An Arabic-English Lexicon*. London: Williams and Norgate, 1863–1893." } ] }, { "id": "alexandria-coptic-rakoti", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/alexandria#coptic-rakoti", "civilization": "alexandria", "language": "coptic", "original_text": "ⲣⲁⲕⲟϯ", "transliteration": "Rakoti", "ipa": "/raˈkoti/", "literal_meaning": "Alexandria", "family": "rakote", "derived_from": "alexandria-egyptian-raqed", "era_start": 200, "era_end": 1300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Crum, W. E. *A Coptic Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1939, s.v. ⲣⲁⲕⲟϯ." }, { "citation": "Timm, Stefan. *Das christliche-koptische Ägypten in arabischer Zeit*. Wiesbaden: Reichert, 1984–1992, s.v. *Alexandria*." } ] }, { "id": "alexandria-demotic-rakote", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/alexandria#demotic-rakote", "civilization": "alexandria", "language": "demotic", "original_text": "", "transliteration": "Rꜥ-qd", "ipa": "*raˈkote", "literal_meaning": "Alexandria (the native name; \"building site\")", "family": "rakote", "derived_from": "alexandria-egyptian-raqed", "era_start": -300, "era_end": 300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Erichsen, Wolja. *Demotisches Glossar*. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard, 1954." }, { "citation": "Depauw, Mark. *A Companion to Demotic Studies*. Brussels: Fondation Égyptologique Reine Élisabeth, 1997." } ] }, { "id": "alexandria-egyptian-raqed", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/alexandria#egyptian-raqed", "civilization": "alexandria", "language": "egyptian", "original_text": "𓂋𓏤𓂝𓀨𓏏𓊖", "transliteration": "Rꜥ-qd", "ipa": null, "literal_meaning": "the building site (from qd, \"to build\")", "family": "rakote", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -500, "era_end": -100, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Gauthier, Henri. *Dictionnaire des noms géographiques contenus dans les textes hiéroglyphiques*. Cairo: IFAO, 1925–1931." }, { "citation": "Chauveau, Michel. \"Alexandrie et Rhakôtis: le point de vue des Égyptiens.\" In *Alexandrie: une mégapole cosmopolite*. Paris: Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, 1999." } ] }, { "id": "alexandria-geez-eskendrya", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/alexandria#geez-eskendrya", "civilization": "alexandria", "language": "geez", "original_text": "እስክንድርያ", "transliteration": "Ǝskǝndǝryā", "ipa": "/ʔəskəndərˈjaː/", "literal_meaning": "Alexandria", "family": "alexandreia", "derived_from": "alexandria-ancient-greek-alexandreia", "era_start": 350, "era_end": 1300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Dillmann, August. *Lexicon Linguae Aethiopicae*. Leipzig: Weigel, 1865." }, { "citation": "*Encyclopaedia Aethiopica*. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2003–2014, s.v. *Alexandria*." } ] }, { "id": "alexandria-latin-alexandria", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/alexandria#latin-alexandria", "civilization": "alexandria", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Alexandrīa", "transliteration": "Alexandrīa", "ipa": "/a.lek.ˈsan.dri.a/", "literal_meaning": "Alexandria", "family": "alexandreia", "derived_from": "alexandria-ancient-greek-alexandreia", "era_start": -50, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Alexandria*." }, { "citation": "Caesar, *Bellum Civile* 3.106–112; Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 5.62." } ] }, { "id": "alexandria-syriac-aleksandriya", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/alexandria#syriac-aleksandriya", "civilization": "alexandria", "language": "syriac", "original_text": "ܐܠܟܣܢܕܪܝܐ", "transliteration": "Aleksandriya", "ipa": "/ʔaleksanˈdrija/", "literal_meaning": "Alexandria", "family": "alexandreia", "derived_from": "alexandria-ancient-greek-alexandreia", "era_start": 150, "era_end": 800, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Peshitta, Acts 6:9, 18:24, 27:6 (ܐܠܟܣܢܕܪܝܐ)." }, { "citation": "Payne Smith, R. *Thesaurus Syriacus*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879–1901, s.v. ܐܠܟܣܢܕܪܝܐ." } ] }, { "id": "anatolia-ancient-greek-anatole", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/anatolia#ancient-greek-anatole", "civilization": "anatolia", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Ἀνατολή", "transliteration": "Anatolḗ", "ipa": "/a.na.to.ˈlɛː/", "literal_meaning": "the east, sunrise (from anatéllō, \"to rise\")", "family": "anatole", "derived_from": null, "era_start": 300, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. *ἀνατολή*." }, { "citation": "Byzantine administrative usage (the theme of Anatolikon)." } ] }, { "id": "anatolia-ancient-greek-asia", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/anatolia#ancient-greek-asia", "civilization": "anatolia", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Ἀσία", "transliteration": "Asía", "ipa": "/a.ˈsi.aː/", "literal_meaning": "Asia (originally western Anatolia)", "family": "asia", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -700, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Herodotus, *Histories* 4.45 (on the naming of the continents)." }, { "citation": "Homer, *Iliad* 2.461 (the \"Asian meadow\" by the Cayster)." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. *Ἀσία*." } ] }, { "id": "anatolia-classical-arabic-anadul", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/anatolia#classical-arabic-anadul", "civilization": "anatolia", "language": "classical-arabic", "original_text": "الأناضول", "transliteration": "al-Anāḍūl", "ipa": "/al.ʔanaːˈdˤuːl/", "literal_meaning": "Anatolia (from Greek Anatolḗ)", "family": "anatole", "derived_from": "anatolia-ancient-greek-anatole", "era_start": 1100, "era_end": 1400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Arabic and Ottoman geographical usage (*Anāḍūl*, *Anāṭūlī*)." }, { "citation": "Cahen, Claude. *Pre-Ottoman Turkey*. London: Sidgwick and Jackson, 1968." } ] }, { "id": "anatolia-classical-arabic-rum", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/anatolia#classical-arabic-rum", "civilization": "anatolia", "language": "classical-arabic", "original_text": "الروم", "transliteration": "al-Rūm", "ipa": "/arˈruːm/", "literal_meaning": "the land of the Romans (the Byzantines); Anatolia", "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": 630, "era_end": 1300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Qurʾān, *Sūrat al-Rūm* (30):1–4." }, { "citation": "Yāqūt al-Ḥamawī. *Muʿjam al-Buldān*, s.v. الروم." } ] }, { "id": "anatolia-geez-asya", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/anatolia#geez-asya", "civilization": "anatolia", "language": "geez", "original_text": "አስያ", "transliteration": "Asya", "ipa": "/ʔasˈja/", "literal_meaning": "Asia (the Roman province of western Anatolia)", "family": "asia", "derived_from": "anatolia-ancient-greek-asia", "era_start": 350, "era_end": 700, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Ethiopic New Testament (Acts; Revelation)." }, { "citation": "Dillmann, August. *Lexicon Linguae Aethiopicae*. Leipzig: Weigel, 1865." } ] }, { "id": "anatolia-hittite-assuwa", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/anatolia#hittite-assuwa", "civilization": "anatolia", "language": "hittite", "original_text": "𒀸𒋗𒉿", "transliteration": "Aššuwa", "ipa": "*ˈaʃʃuwa", "literal_meaning": "Assuwa (a league of northwest Anatolian states; the likely source of \"Asia\")", "family": "asia", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1400, "era_end": -1180, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Beckman, Gary M., Trevor R. Bryce, and Eric H. Cline. *The Ahhiyawa Texts*. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2011." }, { "citation": "Bryce, Trevor. *The Kingdom of the Hittites*. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005." } ] }, { "id": "anatolia-latin-asia", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/anatolia#latin-asia", "civilization": "anatolia", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Asia", "transliteration": "Asia", "ipa": "/ˈa.si.a/", "literal_meaning": "Asia; the Roman province of western Anatolia", "family": "asia", "derived_from": "anatolia-ancient-greek-asia", "era_start": -130, "era_end": 500, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 5.102–103." }, { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Asia*." } ] }, { "id": "anatolia-syriac-asya", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/anatolia#syriac-asya", "civilization": "anatolia", "language": "syriac", "original_text": "ܐܣܝܐ", "transliteration": "Asya", "ipa": "/ˈʔasja/", "literal_meaning": "Asia (the Roman province of western Anatolia)", "family": "asia", "derived_from": "anatolia-ancient-greek-asia", "era_start": 150, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Peshitta, Acts 2:9, 6:9, 19:10, 19:26–27; Revelation 1:4 (ܐܣܝܐ)." }, { "citation": "Payne Smith, R. *Thesaurus Syriacus*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879–1901, s.v. ܐܣܝܐ." } ] }, { "id": "ararat-ancient-greek-ararat", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/ararat#ancient-greek-ararat", "civilization": "ararat", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Ἀραράτ", "transliteration": "Ararát", "ipa": "/a.ra.ˈrat/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "ararat", "derived_from": "ararat-biblical-hebrew-ararat", "era_start": -250, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Septuagint, Genesis 8:4 (τὰ ὄρη τὰ Ἀραράτ); Jeremiah 28:27 LXX (= MT 51:27)." }, { "citation": "Wevers, John W. *Notes on the Greek Text of Genesis*. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1993." } ] }, { "id": "ararat-biblical-hebrew-ararat", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/ararat#biblical-hebrew-ararat", "civilization": "ararat", "language": "biblical-hebrew", "original_text": "אֲרָרָט", "transliteration": "Ăraraṭ", "ipa": "/ʔă.raːˈraːt/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "ararat", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -700, "era_end": -200, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Genesis 8:4; 2 Kings 19:37; Isaiah 37:38; Jeremiah 51:27." }, { "citation": "Köhler, Ludwig, and Walter Baumgartner. *Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament* (HALOT). Leiden: Brill, 1994–2000, s.v. אֲרָרָט." } ] }, { "id": "ararat-syriac-qardu", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/ararat#syriac-qardu", "civilization": "ararat", "language": "syriac", "original_text": "ܩܪܕܘ", "transliteration": "Qardū", "ipa": "/qarˈduː/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": 150, "era_end": 1300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Peshitta, Genesis 8:4 (the ark on the mountains of *Qardū*)." }, { "citation": "Payne Smith, Robert. *Thesaurus Syriacus*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879–1901, s.v. ܩܪܕܘ." } ] }, { "id": "assyria-akkadian-ashur", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/assyria#akkadian-ashur", "civilization": "assyria", "language": "akkadian", "original_text": "𒀸𒋩", "transliteration": "Aššur", "ipa": "/ˈʔaʃʃur/", "literal_meaning": "Aššur (the god, the city, and the land alike)", "family": "ashur", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -2025, "era_end": -609, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Parpola, Simo. *Neo-Assyrian Toponyms*. Alter Orient und Altes Testament 6. Kevelaer: Butzon & Bercker, 1970, s.v. *Aššur*." }, { "citation": "Grayson, A. Kirk. *Assyrian Rulers of the Third and Second Millennia BC (to 1115 BC)*. Royal Inscriptions of Mesopotamia, Assyrian Periods 1. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1987." }, { "citation": "*Chicago Assyrian Dictionary* (CAD), University of Chicago, Vol. M/1, s.v. *mātu*." } ] }, { "id": "assyria-ancient-greek-assyria", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/assyria#ancient-greek-assyria", "civilization": "assyria", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Ἀσσυρία", "transliteration": "Assyría", "ipa": "/as.syˈri.aː/", "literal_meaning": "Assyria", "family": "ashur", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -500, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. *Ἀσσυρία*, *Σύριος*." }, { "citation": "Herodotus, *Histories* 7.63 (\"these the Greeks called Syrians, but the barbarians named them Assyrians\"); 1.102–106, 1.178–200." }, { "citation": "Strabo, *Geography* 16.1." } ] }, { "id": "assyria-biblical-hebrew-ashshur", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/assyria#biblical-hebrew-ashshur", "civilization": "assyria", "language": "biblical-hebrew", "original_text": "אַשּׁוּר", "transliteration": "ʾAššūr", "ipa": "/ʔaʃˈʃuːr/", "literal_meaning": "Assyria; Asshur", "family": "ashur", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -900, "era_end": -100, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament* (HALOT), Leiden: Brill, 1994–2000, s.v. *ʾaššūr*." }, { "citation": "Genesis 10:11, 10:22." }, { "citation": "Isaiah 10:5; Nahum 3:18; 2 Kings 15:19." } ] }, { "id": "assyria-classical-arabic-athur", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/assyria#classical-arabic-athur", "civilization": "assyria", "language": "classical-arabic", "original_text": "أَثُور", "transliteration": "Athūr", "ipa": "/ʔaˈθuːr/", "literal_meaning": "Assyria; the district around Mosul (the t-form continued into Arabic)", "family": "ashur", "derived_from": "assyria-syriac-ator", "era_start": 750, "era_end": 1300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Yāqūt al-Ḥamawī. *Muʿjam al-Buldān*, s.v. أثور." }, { "citation": "*The Encyclopaedia of Islam*. 2nd ed. Leiden: Brill, 1960–2005, s.v. *Athūr*, *al-Mawṣil*." } ] }, { "id": "assyria-elamite-ashura", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/assyria#elamite-ashura", "civilization": "assyria", "language": "elamite", "original_text": "𒀸𒋗𒊏", "transliteration": "Aššura", "ipa": "*ˈʔaʃʃura", "literal_meaning": "Assyria (the Achaemenid satrapy, in the Elamite chancellery version)", "family": "ashur", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -520, "era_end": -330, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Hinz, Walther, and Heidemarie Koch. *Elamisches Wörterbuch*. 2 vols. Berlin: Dietrich Reimer, 1987, s.v. *Aššura*." }, { "citation": "Behistun inscription (DB), Elamite version." } ] }, { "id": "assyria-geez-asor", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/assyria#geez-asor", "civilization": "assyria", "language": "geez", "original_text": "አሦር", "transliteration": "ʾAśor", "ipa": "/ʔaˈsor/", "literal_meaning": "Assyria; Asshur", "family": "ashur", "derived_from": null, "era_start": 350, "era_end": 700, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Genesis 10:11–12 (Ethiopic Old Testament)." }, { "citation": "Dillmann, August. *Lexicon Linguae Aethiopicae*. Leipzig: Weigel, 1865." } ] }, { "id": "assyria-hittite-ashur", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/assyria#hittite-ashur", "civilization": "assyria", "language": "hittite", "original_text": "𒀸𒋩", "transliteration": "Aššur", "ipa": "/ˈʔaʃʃur/", "literal_meaning": "Assyria; the land of Aššur (in Hittite diplomatic usage)", "family": "ashur", "derived_from": "assyria-akkadian-ashur", "era_start": -1320, "era_end": -1180, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Beckman, Gary M., Trevor R. Bryce, and Eric H. Cline. *The Ahhiyawa Texts*. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2011 (Šaušgamuwa treaty, CTH 105)." }, { "citation": "Beckman, Gary. *Hittite Diplomatic Texts*. 2nd ed. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1999." }, { "citation": "Bryce, Trevor. *The Kingdom of the Hittites*. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005." } ] }, { "id": "assyria-imperial-aramaic-atur", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/assyria#imperial-aramaic-atur", "civilization": "assyria", "language": "imperial-aramaic", "original_text": "אתור", "transliteration": "ʾtwr", "ipa": "*ʔaːˈtuːr", "literal_meaning": "Assyria (the Aramaic t-form of Aššur)", "family": "ashur", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -700, "era_end": -200, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Hoftijzer, J., and K. Jongeling. *Dictionary of the North-West Semitic Inscriptions*. Leiden: Brill, 1995, s.v. *ʾtwr*." }, { "citation": "Porten, Bezalel, and Ada Yardeni. *Textbook of Aramaic Documents from Ancient Egypt* (TADAE). 4 vols. Jerusalem: Hebrew University, 1986–1999." } ] }, { "id": "assyria-latin-assyria", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/assyria#latin-assyria", "civilization": "assyria", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Assyria", "transliteration": "Assyria", "ipa": "/asˈsyr.i.a/", "literal_meaning": "Assyria (toponym; borrowed from Greek)", "family": "ashur", "derived_from": "assyria-ancient-greek-assyria", "era_start": -50, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Assyria*." }, { "citation": "Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 5.66, 6.41." } ] }, { "id": "assyria-middle-persian-asoristan", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/assyria#middle-persian-asoristan", "civilization": "assyria", "language": "middle-persian", "original_text": "𐭠𐭮𐭥𐭫𐭮𐭲𐭠𐭭", "transliteration": "Āsōristān", "ipa": "*aːsoːrisˈtaːn", "literal_meaning": "land of the Assyrians; in Sasanian usage, the southern Mesopotamian province (Babylonia)", "family": "ashur", "derived_from": null, "era_start": 224, "era_end": 650, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "MacKenzie, D. N. *A Concise Pahlavi Dictionary*. London: Oxford University Press, 1971, s.v. *Asōristān*." }, { "citation": "Daryaee, Touraj. *Šahrestānīhā ī Ērānšahr: A Middle Persian Text on Late Antique Geography, Epic, and History*. Costa Mesa: Mazda Publishers, 2002." }, { "citation": "*Encyclopaedia Iranica*, s.v. *Āsōristān*." } ] }, { "id": "assyria-old-persian-athura", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/assyria#old-persian-athura", "civilization": "assyria", "language": "old-persian", "original_text": "𐎠𐎰𐎢𐎼𐎠", "transliteration": "Aθurā", "ipa": "/aˈθuraː/", "literal_meaning": "Assyria (the Achaemenid satrapy)", "family": "ashur", "derived_from": "assyria-imperial-aramaic-atur", "era_start": -520, "era_end": -330, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Kent, Roland G. *Old Persian: Grammar, Texts, Lexicon*. 2nd ed. New Haven: American Oriental Society, 1953, s.v. *Aθurā*." }, { "citation": "Schmitt, Rüdiger. *Wörterbuch der altpersischen Königsinschriften*. Wiesbaden: Reichert, 2014, s.v. *Aθurā*." }, { "citation": "Behistun inscription (DB), Old Persian version, column I." } ] }, { "id": "assyria-parthian-asoristan", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/assyria#parthian-asoristan", "civilization": "assyria", "language": "parthian", "original_text": "𐭀𐭎𐭅𐭓𐭎𐭕𐭍", "transliteration": "Asōristān", "ipa": "/asoːrisˈtaːn/", "literal_meaning": "land of the Assyrians; the Sasanian province of southern Mesopotamia", "family": "ashur", "derived_from": null, "era_start": 224, "era_end": 300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Huyse, Philip. *Die dreisprachige Inschrift Šābuhrs I. an der Kaʿba-i Zardušt (ŠKZ)*. Corpus Inscriptionum Iranicarum III/1. London: School of Oriental and African Studies, 1999." }, { "citation": "*Encyclopaedia Iranica*, s.v. *Āsōristān*." } ] }, { "id": "assyria-phoenician-ashur", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/assyria#phoenician-ashur", "civilization": "assyria", "language": "phoenician", "original_text": "𐤀𐤔𐤓", "transliteration": "ʾšr", "ipa": "*ʔaʃˈʃuːr", "literal_meaning": "Assyria; the Assyrians (plural ʾšrym)", "family": "ashur", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -800, "era_end": -600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Tekoğlu, Recai, and André Lemaire. \"La bilingue royale louvito-phénicienne de Çineköy.\" *Comptes rendus de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres* 144, no. 3 (2000): 961–1007." }, { "citation": "Rollinger, Robert. \"The Terms 'Assyria' and 'Syria' Again.\" *Journal of Near Eastern Studies* 65, no. 4 (2006): 283–287." }, { "citation": "Krahmalkov, Charles R. *Phoenician-Punic Dictionary*. Leuven: Peeters, 2000." } ] }, { "id": "assyria-syriac-ator", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/assyria#syriac-ator", "civilization": "assyria", "language": "syriac", "original_text": "ܐܬܘܪ", "transliteration": "ʾĀtor", "ipa": "/ʔɔˈtor/", "literal_meaning": "Assyria (the t-form continued into Syriac)", "family": "ashur", "derived_from": "assyria-imperial-aramaic-atur", "era_start": 150, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Payne Smith, R. *Thesaurus Syriacus*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879–1901, s.v. ܐܬܘܪ." }, { "citation": "Sokoloff, Michael. *A Syriac Lexicon*. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns / Piscataway: Gorgias Press, 2009, s.v. ܐܬܘܪ." } ] }, { "id": "athens-ancient-greek-athenai", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/athens#ancient-greek-athenai", "civilization": "athens", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Ἀθῆναι", "transliteration": "Athēnai", "ipa": "/a.tʰɛ̂ː.nai̯/", "literal_meaning": "Athens (a plural; named with the goddess Athēnā)", "family": "athenai", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -800, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Thucydides, *History of the Peloponnesian War* 1.1, 2.15." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. *Ἀθῆναι*, *Ἀθήνη*." }, { "citation": "Ventris, Michael, and John Chadwick. *Documents in Mycenaean Greek*. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1973." } ] }, { "id": "athens-classical-arabic-athiniyya", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/athens#classical-arabic-athiniyya", "civilization": "athens", "language": "classical-arabic", "original_text": "أثينية", "transliteration": "Athīniyya", "ipa": "/ʔaˈθiː.nij.ja/", "literal_meaning": "Athens (the city of the philosophers)", "family": "athenai", "derived_from": "athens-ancient-greek-athenai", "era_start": 800, "era_end": 1300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "al-Masʿūdī. *Murūj al-dhahab*, on the philosophers of the Greeks." }, { "citation": "al-Mubashshir ibn Fātik. *Mukhtār al-ḥikam wa-maḥāsin al-kalim*. Madrid: Instituto Egipcio de Estudios Islámicos, 1958." } ] }, { "id": "athens-coptic-athenas", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/athens#coptic-athenas", "civilization": "athens", "language": "coptic", "original_text": "ⲁⲑⲏⲛⲁⲥ", "transliteration": "Athēnas", "ipa": "/aˈtʰeːnas/", "literal_meaning": "Athens", "family": "athenai", "derived_from": "athens-ancient-greek-athenai", "era_start": 300, "era_end": 1000, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Horner, George. *The Coptic Version of the New Testament in the Southern Dialect* (Sahidic). Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1898–1905, Acts 17:15–16." }, { "citation": "Horner, George. *The Coptic Version of the New Testament in the Northern Dialect* (Bohairic). Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1898–1905, Acts 17." } ] }, { "id": "athens-geez-atena", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/athens#geez-atena", "civilization": "athens", "language": "geez", "original_text": "አቴና", "transliteration": "Atēna", "ipa": "/ʔaˈteːna/", "literal_meaning": "Athens", "family": "athenai", "derived_from": "athens-ancient-greek-athenai", "era_start": 350, "era_end": 700, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "The Ethiopic (Geʿez) New Testament, Acts 17:16 (በአቴና, \"at Athens\")." }, { "citation": "Platt, Thomas Pell, ed. *Novum Testamentum Domini Nostri et Servatoris Jesu Christi Aethiopice*. London, 1830, Acts 17." } ] }, { "id": "athens-jewish-babylonian-aramaic-atuna", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/athens#jewish-babylonian-aramaic-atuna", "civilization": "athens", "language": "jewish-babylonian-aramaic", "original_text": "אתונא", "transliteration": "Atuna", "ipa": "/ʔaˈtuːna/", "literal_meaning": "Athens", "family": "athenai", "derived_from": "athens-ancient-greek-athenai", "era_start": 200, "era_end": 700, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Babylonian Talmud, *Bekhorot* 8b (סבי דבי אתונא, \"the elders of Athens\")." }, { "citation": "Sokoloff, Michael. *A Dictionary of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic*. Ramat-Gan: Bar Ilan University Press, 2002, s.v. אתונא." } ] }, { "id": "athens-latin-athenae", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/athens#latin-athenae", "civilization": "athens", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Athēnae", "transliteration": "Athēnae", "ipa": "/aˈtʰeː.nae̯/", "literal_meaning": "Athens", "family": "athenai", "derived_from": "athens-ancient-greek-athenai", "era_start": -200, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Cicero, *De Finibus* 5.1; *Epistulae ad Atticum*, passim." }, { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Athenae*." } ] }, { "id": "athens-mycenaean-greek-a-ta-na", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/athens#mycenaean-greek-a-ta-na", "civilization": "athens", "language": "mycenaean-greek", "original_text": "𐀀𐀲𐀙", "transliteration": "a-ta-na", "ipa": "*atʰaːnaː", "literal_meaning": "Athana (disputed; the city Athens or the goddess)", "family": "athenai", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1400, "era_end": -1200, "confidence": "disputed", "sources": [ { "citation": "Knossos Linear B tablet KN V 52, *a-ta-na po-ti-ni-ja* (\"the Lady of Athana\")." }, { "citation": "Ventris, Michael, and John Chadwick. *Documents in Mycenaean Greek*. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1973." } ] }, { "id": "athens-syriac-atenos", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/athens#syriac-atenos", "civilization": "athens", "language": "syriac", "original_text": "ܐܬܢܘܣ", "transliteration": "Atēnos", "ipa": "/ʔaˈtɛːnos/", "literal_meaning": "Athens", "family": "athenai", "derived_from": "athens-ancient-greek-athenai", "era_start": 150, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Peshitta, Acts 17:15–16 (ܐܬܢܘܣ); Acts 17:21–22 (ܐܬܢܝܐ, \"Athenians\")." }, { "citation": "Payne Smith, R. *Thesaurus Syriacus*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879–1901." } ] }, { "id": "babylon-akkadian-babilu", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/babylon#akkadian-babilu", "civilization": "babylon", "language": "akkadian", "original_text": "𒆍𒀭𒊏𒆠", "transliteration": "Bābilu", "ipa": "/ˈbaːbilu/", "literal_meaning": "gate of the god (Bāb-ilim); the city of Babylon", "family": "babili", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -2300, "era_end": 100, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Reallexikon der Assyriologie und Vorderasiatischen Archäologie*, s.v. *Babylon*." }, { "citation": "*Chicago Assyrian Dictionary* (CAD), University of Chicago, Vol. B, s.v. *bābu*." }, { "citation": "George, A. R. *Babylonian Topographical Texts*. Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 40. Leuven: Peeters, 1992." } ] }, { "id": "babylon-ancient-greek-babylon", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/babylon#ancient-greek-babylon", "civilization": "babylon", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Βαβυλών", "transliteration": "Babylṓn", "ipa": "/ba.byˈlɔːn/", "literal_meaning": "Babylon (the city)", "family": "babili", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -500, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. *Βαβυλών*." }, { "citation": "Herodotus, *Histories* 1.178–187, 1.192–200." }, { "citation": "Strabo, *Geography* 16.1.5." } ] }, { "id": "babylon-biblical-hebrew-babel", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/babylon#biblical-hebrew-babel", "civilization": "babylon", "language": "biblical-hebrew", "original_text": "בָּבֶל", "transliteration": "Bābel", "ipa": "/bɔːˈvɛl/", "literal_meaning": "Babylon (Hebrew etymology \"confusion,\" from bālal \"to confound\")", "family": "babili", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -900, "era_end": -100, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament* (HALOT), Leiden: Brill, 1994–2000, s.v. *bābel*." }, { "citation": "Genesis 11:1–9." }, { "citation": "2 Kings 24–25; Isaiah 13:1, 14:4; Jeremiah 50–51; Psalm 137:1." } ] }, { "id": "babylon-classical-arabic-babil", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/babylon#classical-arabic-babil", "civilization": "babylon", "language": "classical-arabic", "original_text": "بابل", "transliteration": "Bābil", "ipa": "/ˈbaːbil/", "literal_meaning": "Babylon (the city; the ruins)", "family": "babili", "derived_from": "babylon-syriac-babel", "era_start": 600, "era_end": 1300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Lane, Edward William. *An Arabic-English Lexicon*. London: Williams and Norgate, 1863–1893, s.v. بابل." }, { "citation": "Qurʾān, *Sūrat al-Baqara* (2):102." }, { "citation": "Yāqūt al-Ḥamawī. *Muʿjam al-Buldān*, s.v. بابل." } ] }, { "id": "babylon-elamite-babili", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/babylon#elamite-babili", "civilization": "babylon", "language": "elamite", "original_text": "𒀸𒁀𒉿𒇷", "transliteration": "Babili", "ipa": "*ˈbabili", "literal_meaning": "Babylon (city and Achaemenid satrapy, Elamite chancellery form)", "family": "babili", "derived_from": "babylon-akkadian-babilu", "era_start": -520, "era_end": -330, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Hinz, Walther, and Heidemarie Koch. *Elamisches Wörterbuch*. 2 vols. Berlin: Dietrich Reimer, 1987, s.v. *Babili*." }, { "citation": "Behistun inscription (DB), Elamite version." } ] }, { "id": "babylon-geez-babilon", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/babylon#geez-babilon", "civilization": "babylon", "language": "geez", "original_text": "ባቢሎን", "transliteration": "Bābilon", "ipa": "/baːbiˈlon/", "literal_meaning": "Babylon (the city)", "family": "babili", "derived_from": "babylon-ancient-greek-babylon", "era_start": 350, "era_end": 700, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Psalm 137:1; Genesis 11:9 (Ethiopic Old Testament)." }, { "citation": "Dillmann, August. *Lexicon Linguae Aethiopicae*. Leipzig: Weigel, 1865." } ] }, { "id": "babylon-imperial-aramaic-babel", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/babylon#imperial-aramaic-babel", "civilization": "babylon", "language": "imperial-aramaic", "original_text": "בבל", "transliteration": "Bbl", "ipa": "*baːˈbel", "literal_meaning": "Babylon (Aramaic administrative and literary usage)", "family": "babili", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -600, "era_end": -200, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Hoftijzer, J., and K. Jongeling. *Dictionary of the North-West Semitic Inscriptions*. Leiden: Brill, 1995, s.v. *bbl*." }, { "citation": "Daniel 2:12, 2:48–49, 3:1 (Aramaic)." }, { "citation": "Porten, Bezalel, and Ada Yardeni. *Textbook of Aramaic Documents from Ancient Egypt* (TADAE). 4 vols. Jerusalem: Hebrew University, 1986–1999." } ] }, { "id": "babylon-jewish-babylonian-aramaic-bavel", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/babylon#jewish-babylonian-aramaic-bavel", "civilization": "babylon", "language": "jewish-babylonian-aramaic", "original_text": "בבל", "transliteration": "Bavel", "ipa": "/baːˈvel/", "literal_meaning": "Babylon", "family": "babili", "derived_from": null, "era_start": 200, "era_end": 700, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Sokoloff, Michael. *A Dictionary of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic*. Ramat-Gan: Bar Ilan University Press, 2002, s.v. בבל." }, { "citation": "Babylonian Talmud, ubiquitous; e.g. b. *Ketubot* 110b–111a (on residence in Babylonia)." } ] }, { "id": "babylon-latin-babylon", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/babylon#latin-babylon", "civilization": "babylon", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Babylōn", "transliteration": "Babylōn", "ipa": "/ˈba.by.loːn/", "literal_meaning": "Babylon (the city; borrowed from Greek)", "family": "babili", "derived_from": "babylon-ancient-greek-babylon", "era_start": -50, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Babylon*." }, { "citation": "Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 6.121–123." }, { "citation": "Jerome, *Vulgata* (Genesis 11; Daniel; Revelation 17–18)." } ] }, { "id": "babylon-middle-persian-babel", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/babylon#middle-persian-babel", "civilization": "babylon", "language": "middle-persian", "original_text": "𐫁𐫀𐫁𐫏𐫓", "transliteration": "Bābel", "ipa": "/ˈbaːbel/", "literal_meaning": "Babylon (the city and its land)", "family": "babili", "derived_from": null, "era_start": 250, "era_end": 650, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Durkin-Meisterernst, Desmond. *Dictionary of Manichaean Texts, Vol. III/1: Dictionary of Manichaean Middle Persian and Parthian*. Turnhout: Brepols, 2004, s.v. *bʾbyl*." }, { "citation": "Boyce, Mary. *A Reader in Manichaean Middle Persian and Parthian*. Acta Iranica 9. Leiden: Brill, 1975." } ] }, { "id": "babylon-old-persian-babirus", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/babylon#old-persian-babirus", "civilization": "babylon", "language": "old-persian", "original_text": "𐎲𐎠𐎲𐎡𐎽𐎢𐏁", "transliteration": "Bābiruš", "ipa": "/baːbiˈruʃ/", "literal_meaning": "Babylon (city and Achaemenid satrapy)", "family": "babili", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -520, "era_end": -330, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Kent, Roland G. *Old Persian: Grammar, Texts, Lexicon*. 2nd ed. New Haven: American Oriental Society, 1953, s.v. *Bābiru-*." }, { "citation": "Schmitt, Rüdiger. *Wörterbuch der altpersischen Königsinschriften*. Wiesbaden: Reichert, 2014, s.v. *Bābiru-*." }, { "citation": "Behistun inscription (DB), Old Persian version, column I." } ] }, { "id": "babylon-parthian-babel", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/babylon#parthian-babel", "civilization": "babylon", "language": "parthian", "original_text": "𐫁𐫀𐫁𐫏𐫓", "transliteration": "Bābel", "ipa": "/ˈbaːbel/", "literal_meaning": "Babylon (the city and its land)", "family": "babili", "derived_from": null, "era_start": 250, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Durkin-Meisterernst, Desmond. *Dictionary of Manichaean Texts, Vol. III/1: Dictionary of Manichaean Middle Persian and Parthian*. Turnhout: Brepols, 2004, s.v. *bʾbyl*." }, { "citation": "Boyce, Mary. *A Reader in Manichaean Middle Persian and Parthian*. Acta Iranica 9. Leiden: Brill, 1975." } ] }, { "id": "babylon-sumerian-kadingirra", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/babylon#sumerian-kadingirra", "civilization": "babylon", "language": "sumerian", "original_text": "𒆍𒀭𒊏𒆠", "transliteration": "Kadingirra", "ipa": null, "literal_meaning": "gate of god (KÁ.DINGIR.RA)", "family": "babili", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -2100, "era_end": -1600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Reallexikon der Assyriologie und Vorderasiatischen Archäologie*, s.v. *Babylon*." }, { "citation": "*The Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary* (ePSD2), s.v. *Kadingira* (place name)." } ] }, { "id": "babylon-syriac-babel", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/babylon#syriac-babel", "civilization": "babylon", "language": "syriac", "original_text": "ܒܒܠ", "transliteration": "Bābel", "ipa": "/ˈbɔːvel/", "literal_meaning": "Babylon (the city)", "family": "babili", "derived_from": "babylon-imperial-aramaic-babel", "era_start": 150, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Payne Smith, R. *Thesaurus Syriacus*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879–1901, s.v. ܒܒܠ." }, { "citation": "Sokoloff, Michael. *A Syriac Lexicon*. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns / Piscataway: Gorgias Press, 2009, s.v. ܒܒܠ." }, { "citation": "Peshitta, Genesis 11:9; Daniel 1:1; Psalm 137:1." } ] }, { "id": "babylonia-akkadian-babilu", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/babylonia#akkadian-babilu", "civilization": "babylonia", "language": "akkadian", "original_text": "𒆍𒀭𒊏𒆠", "transliteration": "Bābilu", "ipa": "/ˈbaːbilu/", "literal_meaning": "Babylon (traditionally \"gate of the god\"); the land = māt Akkadî", "family": "babili", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1894, "era_end": -539, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Reallexikon der Assyriologie und Vorderasiatischen Archäologie*, s.v. *Babylon*." }, { "citation": "*Chicago Assyrian Dictionary* (CAD), University of Chicago, Vol. B, s.v. *bābu*; Vol. M/1, s.v. *mātu*." }, { "citation": "Frame, Grant. *Rulers of Babylonia from the Second Dynasty of Isin to the End of Assyrian Domination*. Royal Inscriptions of Mesopotamia, Babylonian Periods 2. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1995." } ] }, { "id": "babylonia-ancient-greek-babylonia", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/babylonia#ancient-greek-babylonia", "civilization": "babylonia", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Βαβυλωνία", "transliteration": "Babylōnía", "ipa": "/ba.by.lɔːˈni.a/", "literal_meaning": "Babylonia; the land of Babylon", "family": "babili", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -500, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. *Βαβυλών*, *Βαβυλωνία*." }, { "citation": "Herodotus, *Histories* 1.178–187, 1.192–200." }, { "citation": "Strabo, *Geography* 16.1." } ] }, { "id": "babylonia-biblical-hebrew-babel", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/babylonia#biblical-hebrew-babel", "civilization": "babylonia", "language": "biblical-hebrew", "original_text": "בָּבֶל", "transliteration": "Bābel", "ipa": "/bɔːˈvɛl/", "literal_meaning": "Babylon; Babylonia", "family": "babili", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -900, "era_end": -100, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament* (HALOT), Leiden: Brill, 1994–2000, s.v. *bābel*." }, { "citation": "Genesis 10:10, 11:9." }, { "citation": "2 Kings 25:1–21; Isaiah 13:1; Psalm 137:1." } ] }, { "id": "babylonia-classical-arabic-babil", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/babylonia#classical-arabic-babil", "civilization": "babylonia", "language": "classical-arabic", "original_text": "بابل", "transliteration": "Bābil", "ipa": "/ˈbaːbil/", "literal_meaning": "Babylon; Babylonia", "family": "babili", "derived_from": "babylonia-syriac-babel", "era_start": 600, "era_end": 1300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Lane, Edward William. *An Arabic-English Lexicon*. London: Williams and Norgate, 1863–1893, s.v. بابل." }, { "citation": "Qurʾān, *Sūrat al-Baqara* (2):102." }, { "citation": "Yāqūt al-Ḥamawī. *Muʿjam al-Buldān*, s.v. بابل." } ] }, { "id": "babylonia-elamite-babili", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/babylonia#elamite-babili", "civilization": "babylonia", "language": "elamite", "original_text": "𒀸𒁀𒉿𒇷", "transliteration": "Babili", "ipa": "*ˈbabili", "literal_meaning": "Babylon; Babylonia (the Achaemenid satrapy, Elamite chancellery version)", "family": "babili", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -520, "era_end": -330, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Hinz, Walther, and Heidemarie Koch. *Elamisches Wörterbuch*. 2 vols. Berlin: Dietrich Reimer, 1987, s.v. *Babili*." }, { "citation": "Behistun inscription (DB), Elamite version." } ] }, { "id": "babylonia-geez-babilon", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/babylonia#geez-babilon", "civilization": "babylonia", "language": "geez", "original_text": "ባቢሎን", "transliteration": "Bābilon", "ipa": "/baːbiˈlon/", "literal_meaning": "Babylon; Babylonia", "family": "babili", "derived_from": "babylonia-ancient-greek-babylonia", "era_start": 350, "era_end": 700, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Psalm 137:1; Genesis 11:9 (Ethiopic Old Testament)." }, { "citation": "Dillmann, August. *Lexicon Linguae Aethiopicae*. Leipzig: Weigel, 1865." } ] }, { "id": "babylonia-imperial-aramaic-babel", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/babylonia#imperial-aramaic-babel", "civilization": "babylonia", "language": "imperial-aramaic", "original_text": "בבל", "transliteration": "Bbl", "ipa": "*baːˈbel", "literal_meaning": "Babylon; Babylonia (Aramaic administrative usage)", "family": "babili", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -600, "era_end": -200, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Hoftijzer, J., and K. Jongeling. *Dictionary of the North-West Semitic Inscriptions*. Leiden: Brill, 1995, s.v. *bbl*." }, { "citation": "Daniel 2:12, 2:48–49, 3:1 (Aramaic)." }, { "citation": "Porten, Bezalel, and Ada Yardeni. *Textbook of Aramaic Documents from Ancient Egypt* (TADAE). 4 vols. Jerusalem: Hebrew University, 1986–1999." } ] }, { "id": "babylonia-jewish-babylonian-aramaic-bavel", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/babylonia#jewish-babylonian-aramaic-bavel", "civilization": "babylonia", "language": "jewish-babylonian-aramaic", "original_text": "בבל", "transliteration": "Bavel", "ipa": "/baːˈvel/", "literal_meaning": "Babylonia", "family": "babili", "derived_from": null, "era_start": 200, "era_end": 700, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Sokoloff, Michael. *A Dictionary of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic*. Ramat-Gan: Bar Ilan University Press, 2002, s.v. בבל." }, { "citation": "Babylonian Talmud, b. *Ketubot* 110b–111a; b. *Kiddushin* 71b (on Babylonian lineage)." } ] }, { "id": "babylonia-latin-babylonia", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/babylonia#latin-babylonia", "civilization": "babylonia", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Babylōnia", "transliteration": "Babylōnia", "ipa": "/ba.byˈloː.ni.a/", "literal_meaning": "Babylonia (toponym; borrowed from Greek)", "family": "babili", "derived_from": "babylonia-ancient-greek-babylonia", "era_start": -50, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Babylon*, *Babylonia*." }, { "citation": "Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 6.121–123." }, { "citation": "Jerome, *Vulgata*, passim (Daniel; Psalms; Revelation)." } ] }, { "id": "babylonia-middle-persian-babel", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/babylonia#middle-persian-babel", "civilization": "babylonia", "language": "middle-persian", "original_text": "𐫁𐫀𐫁𐫏𐫓", "transliteration": "Bābel", "ipa": "/ˈbaːbel/", "literal_meaning": "Babylon; the land of Babylon", "family": "babili", "derived_from": null, "era_start": 250, "era_end": 650, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Durkin-Meisterernst, Desmond. *Dictionary of Manichaean Texts, Vol. III/1: Dictionary of Manichaean Middle Persian and Parthian*. Turnhout: Brepols, 2004, s.v. *bʾbyl*." }, { "citation": "Boyce, Mary. *A Reader in Manichaean Middle Persian and Parthian*. Acta Iranica 9. Leiden: Brill, 1975." } ] }, { "id": "babylonia-old-persian-babirus", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/babylonia#old-persian-babirus", "civilization": "babylonia", "language": "old-persian", "original_text": "𐎲𐎠𐎲𐎡𐎽𐎢𐏁", "transliteration": "Bābiruš", "ipa": "/baːbiˈruʃ/", "literal_meaning": "Babylon; Babylonia (the Achaemenid satrapy)", "family": "babili", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -520, "era_end": -330, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Kent, Roland G. *Old Persian: Grammar, Texts, Lexicon*. 2nd ed. New Haven: American Oriental Society, 1953, s.v. *Bābiru-*." }, { "citation": "Schmitt, Rüdiger. *Wörterbuch der altpersischen Königsinschriften*. Wiesbaden: Reichert, 2014, s.v. *Bābiru-*." }, { "citation": "Behistun inscription (DB), Old Persian version, column I." } ] }, { "id": "babylonia-parthian-babel", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/babylonia#parthian-babel", "civilization": "babylonia", "language": "parthian", "original_text": "𐫁𐫀𐫁𐫏𐫓", "transliteration": "Bābel", "ipa": "/ˈbaːbel/", "literal_meaning": "Babylon; the land of Babylon", "family": "babili", "derived_from": null, "era_start": 250, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Durkin-Meisterernst, Desmond. *Dictionary of Manichaean Texts, Vol. III/1: Dictionary of Manichaean Middle Persian and Parthian*. Turnhout: Brepols, 2004, s.v. *bʾbyl*." }, { "citation": "Boyce, Mary. *A Reader in Manichaean Middle Persian and Parthian*. Acta Iranica 9. Leiden: Brill, 1975." } ] }, { "id": "babylonia-sumerian-kadingirra", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/babylonia#sumerian-kadingirra", "civilization": "babylonia", "language": "sumerian", "original_text": "𒆍𒀭𒊏𒆠", "transliteration": "Kadingirra", "ipa": null, "literal_meaning": "gate of god (KÁ.DINGIR.RA)", "family": "babili", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -2100, "era_end": -1600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Reallexikon der Assyriologie und Vorderasiatischen Archäologie*, s.v. *Babylon*." }, { "citation": "*The Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary* (ePSD2), s.v. *Kadingira* (place name)." } ] }, { "id": "babylonia-syriac-babel", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/babylonia#syriac-babel", "civilization": "babylonia", "language": "syriac", "original_text": "ܒܒܠ", "transliteration": "Bābel", "ipa": "/ˈbɔːvel/", "literal_meaning": "Babylon; Babylonia", "family": "babili", "derived_from": "babylonia-imperial-aramaic-babel", "era_start": 150, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Payne Smith, R. *Thesaurus Syriacus*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879–1901, s.v. ܒܒܠ." }, { "citation": "Sokoloff, Michael. *A Syriac Lexicon*. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns / Piscataway: Gorgias Press, 2009, s.v. ܒܒܠ." }, { "citation": "Peshitta, Genesis 11:9; Daniel 1:1; Psalm 137:1." } ] }, { "id": "bactria-akkadian-bahtar", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/bactria#akkadian-bahtar", "civilization": "bactria", "language": "akkadian", "original_text": "𒁀𒄴𒋻", "transliteration": "Baḫtar", "ipa": "/baxˈtar/", "literal_meaning": "Bactria", "family": "baxtri", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -520, "era_end": -330, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Kent, Roland G. *Old Persian: Grammar, Texts, Lexicon*. 2nd ed. New Haven: American Oriental Society, 1950, s.v. *Bāxtri-* (Akk. *ba-aḫ-tar*)." }, { "citation": "von Voigtländer, Elizabeth N. *The Bisitun Inscription of Darius the Great: Babylonian Version*. London: Lund Humphries, 1978; Weissbach, F. H. *Die Keilinschriften der Achämeniden*. Leipzig, 1911." } ] }, { "id": "bactria-ancient-greek-baktria", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/bactria#ancient-greek-baktria", "civilization": "bactria", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Βακτριανή", "transliteration": "Baktrianḗ", "ipa": "/bak.tri.a.ˈnɛː/", "literal_meaning": "Bactria (the land; the city was Báktra)", "family": "baxtri", "derived_from": "bactria-old-persian-baxtrish", "era_start": -330, "era_end": 300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Strabo, *Geography* 11.11; Polybius, *Histories* 10.49, 11.34." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. *Βάκτρα*, *Βακτριανή*." } ] }, { "id": "bactria-avestan-baxdi", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/bactria#avestan-baxdi", "civilization": "bactria", "language": "avestan", "original_text": "𐬠𐬁𐬑𐬜𐬍", "transliteration": "Bāxδī", "ipa": "/ˈbaːx.ðiː/", "literal_meaning": "Bactria (qualified in the Avesta as \"the beautiful, with uplifted banners\")", "family": "baxtri", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1000, "era_end": -400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Vendidad* (Vidēvdāt) 1.6 (the list of the sixteen lands created by Ahura Mazda)." }, { "citation": "Gnoli, Gherardo. *Encyclopaedia Iranica*, s.v. \"Bactria ii. In the Avesta and in Zoroastrian Tradition\"." } ] }, { "id": "bactria-classical-chinese-daxia", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/bactria#classical-chinese-daxia", "civilization": "bactria", "language": "classical-chinese", "original_text": "大夏", "transliteration": "Dàxià", "ipa": null, "literal_meaning": "Bactria (as known to the Han; the relation to the native name is debated)", "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": -130, "era_end": 100, "confidence": "disputed", "sources": [ { "citation": "Sima Qian, *Shiji* 123 (*Dayuan liezhuan*, the report of Zhang Qian)." }, { "citation": "Pulleyblank, Edwin G. *Encyclopaedia Iranica*, s.v. \"Chinese-Iranian Relations\"." } ] }, { "id": "bactria-elamite-baksis", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/bactria#elamite-baksis", "civilization": "bactria", "language": "elamite", "original_text": "𒁀𒀝𒅆𒅖", "transliteration": "Bākšiš", "ipa": "*bakʃiʃ", "literal_meaning": "Bactria", "family": "baxtri", "derived_from": "bactria-old-persian-baxtrish", "era_start": -520, "era_end": -330, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Kent, Roland G. *Old Persian: Grammar, Texts, Lexicon*. 2nd ed. New Haven: American Oriental Society, 1950, s.v. *Bāxtri-* (Elam. *ba-ak-ši-iš*)." }, { "citation": "Behistun inscription (DB), Elamite version, §6; cf. the CDLI edition of the Elamite Behistun text." } ] }, { "id": "bactria-latin-bactria", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/bactria#latin-bactria", "civilization": "bactria", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Bactria", "transliteration": "Bactria", "ipa": "/ˈbak.tri.a/", "literal_meaning": "Bactria (also Bactriana)", "family": "baxtri", "derived_from": "bactria-ancient-greek-baktria", "era_start": -50, "era_end": 500, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 6.47–48; Quintus Curtius Rufus, *Historiae Alexandri* 7.4." }, { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Bactria*, *Bactra*." } ] }, { "id": "bactria-middle-persian-baxl", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/bactria#middle-persian-baxl", "civilization": "bactria", "language": "middle-persian", "original_text": "𐭡𐭠𐭧𐭫", "transliteration": "Baxl", "ipa": "/baxl/", "literal_meaning": "Bactria; Balkh", "family": "baxtri", "derived_from": null, "era_start": 224, "era_end": 900, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "MacKenzie, D. N. *A Concise Pahlavi Dictionary*. London: Oxford University Press, 1971." }, { "citation": "Gnoli, Gherardo. \"Bactria.\" In *Encyclopaedia Iranica*; cf. *Šahrestānīhā ī Ērānšahr*." } ] }, { "id": "bactria-old-persian-baxtrish", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/bactria#old-persian-baxtrish", "civilization": "bactria", "language": "old-persian", "original_text": "𐎲𐎠𐎧𐎫𐎼𐎡𐏁", "transliteration": "Bāxtriš", "ipa": "/ˈbaːx.tri.ʃ/", "literal_meaning": "Bactria (the Achaemenid satrapy)", "family": "baxtri", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -520, "era_end": -330, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Kent, Roland G. *Old Persian: Grammar, Texts, Lexicon*. 2nd ed. New Haven: American Oriental Society, 1953, s.v. *Bāxtri-*." }, { "citation": "Behistun inscription (DB), Old Persian version (the satrapy list, column I)." } ] }, { "id": "bactria-sanskrit-bahlika", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/bactria#sanskrit-bahlika", "civilization": "bactria", "language": "sanskrit", "original_text": "बाह्लिक", "transliteration": "Bāhlika", "ipa": "/ˈbaːɦlikɐ/", "literal_meaning": "Bactria; the Bactrians (the Bāhlikas of Indian texts)", "family": "baxtri", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -150, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Monier-Williams, Monier. *A Sanskrit-English Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1899, s.v. *bāhlika*." }, { "citation": "Sanskrit epic and Puranic usage (the *Bāhlikas* among the northwestern peoples)." } ] }, { "id": "black-sea-ancient-greek-pontos-euxeinos", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/black-sea#ancient-greek-pontos-euxeinos", "civilization": "black-sea", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Πόντος Εὔξεινος", "transliteration": "Póntos Eúxeinos", "ipa": "/ˈpon.tos ˈeu̯k.seː.nos/", "literal_meaning": "the Hospitable Sea", "family": "pontos", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -700, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Strabo, *Geographica* 7.3.6 (on the change from *Áxeinos* to *Eúxeinos*); Pindar, *Pythian* 4.203." }, { "citation": "Schmitt, Rüdiger. \"Considerations on the Name of the Black Sea.\" In *Hellas und der griechische Osten*, 1996, 219–224." } ] }, { "id": "black-sea-classical-arabic-bahr-nitas", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/black-sea#classical-arabic-bahr-nitas", "civilization": "black-sea", "language": "classical-arabic", "original_text": "بحر نيطس", "transliteration": "Baḥr Nīṭas", "ipa": "/baħr ˈniː.tˤas/", "literal_meaning": "the Sea of Pontus", "family": "pontos", "derived_from": "black-sea-ancient-greek-pontos-euxeinos", "era_start": 800, "era_end": 1300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "al-Masʿūdī, *Murūj al-Dhahab*. Ed. Pellat, Beirut, 1966–79." }, { "citation": "Yāqūt al-Ḥamawī, *Muʿjam al-Buldān*. Beirut: Dār Ṣādir, 1977, s.v. نيطس." } ] }, { "id": "black-sea-latin-pontus-euxinus", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/black-sea#latin-pontus-euxinus", "civilization": "black-sea", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Pontus Euxinus", "transliteration": "Pontus Euxinus", "ipa": "/ˈpon.tus eu̯kˈsiː.nus/", "literal_meaning": "the Hospitable Sea", "family": "pontos", "derived_from": "black-sea-ancient-greek-pontos-euxeinos", "era_start": -50, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Ovid, *Tristia* 4.4.55–58, *Epistulae ex Ponto* 1.1 (written in exile at Tomis on its shore)." }, { "citation": "Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 6.1; Lewis-Short, s.v. *Pontus*." } ] }, { "id": "bosporus-ancient-greek-bosporos", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/bosporus#ancient-greek-bosporos", "civilization": "bosporus", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Βόσπορος", "transliteration": "Bósporos", "ipa": "/ˈbos.po.ros/", "literal_meaning": "the ox-ford", "family": "bosporos", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -700, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Aeschylus, *Prometheus Bound* 729–735 (the strait named for Io's crossing); Herodotus, *Historiae* 4.83–89; Polybius, *Histories* 4.43–44." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. Βόσπορος." } ] }, { "id": "bosporus-latin-bosporus", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/bosporus#latin-bosporus", "civilization": "bosporus", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Bosporus", "transliteration": "Bosporus", "ipa": "/ˈbos.po.rus/", "literal_meaning": "the ox-ford", "family": "bosporos", "derived_from": "bosporus-ancient-greek-bosporos", "era_start": -50, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 4.46, 6.1; Ovid, *Tristia* 1.10.31–34." }, { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Bosporus*." } ] }, { "id": "byzantium-ancient-greek-byzantion", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/byzantium#ancient-greek-byzantion", "civilization": "byzantium", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Βυζάντιον", "transliteration": "Byzántion", "ipa": "/byˈzan.ti.on/", "literal_meaning": "Byzantium (the city of Byzas)", "family": "byzantion", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -657, "era_end": 330, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Herodotus, *Histories* 4.144 (the Megarian foundation and the \"city of the blind\"); Strabo, *Geography* 7.6.2." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. Βυζάντιον." } ] }, { "id": "byzantium-ancient-greek-konstantinoupolis", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/byzantium#ancient-greek-konstantinoupolis", "civilization": "byzantium", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Κωνσταντινούπολις", "transliteration": "Kōnstantinoúpolis", "ipa": "/kɔːn.stan.tiˈnuː.po.lis/", "literal_meaning": "the city of Constantine", "family": "constantinople", "derived_from": null, "era_start": 330, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Socrates Scholasticus, *Historia Ecclesiastica*; the Second Ecumenical Council (Constantinople, 381), canon 3 (\"because it is New Rome\")." }, { "citation": "Lexikon zur byzantinischen Gräzität; LSJ, s.v. Κωνσταντινούπολις." } ] }, { "id": "byzantium-classical-arabic-qustantiniyya", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/byzantium#classical-arabic-qustantiniyya", "civilization": "byzantium", "language": "classical-arabic", "original_text": "القسطنطينية", "transliteration": "al-Qusṭanṭīniyya", "ipa": "/al.qus.tˤan.tˤiːˈnij.ja/", "literal_meaning": "Constantinople (the Constantinian city)", "family": "constantinople", "derived_from": "byzantium-ancient-greek-konstantinoupolis", "era_start": 700, "era_end": 1400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "al-Ṭabarī, *Taʾrīkh al-rusul wa-l-mulūk* (the Arab sieges of the city)." }, { "citation": "Yāqūt al-Ḥamawī, *Muʿjam al-Buldān*, s.v. القسطنطينية." } ] }, { "id": "byzantium-latin-byzantium", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/byzantium#latin-byzantium", "civilization": "byzantium", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Byzantium", "transliteration": "Byzantium", "ipa": "/byːˈzan.ti.um/", "literal_meaning": "Byzantium", "family": "byzantion", "derived_from": "byzantium-ancient-greek-byzantion", "era_start": -150, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 4.46; Tacitus, *Annals* 12.62–63 (the colony's privileges)." }, { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Byzantium*." } ] }, { "id": "byzantium-latin-constantinopolis", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/byzantium#latin-constantinopolis", "civilization": "byzantium", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Constantinopolis", "transliteration": "Constantinopolis", "ipa": "/kon.stan.tiˈno.po.lis/", "literal_meaning": "Constantinople; New Rome", "family": "constantinople", "derived_from": "byzantium-ancient-greek-konstantinoupolis", "era_start": 330, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Notitia Urbis Constantinopolitanae*; *Codex Theodosianus*; Ammianus Marcellinus, *Res Gestae*." } ] }, { "id": "byzantium-syriac-qustantinupolis", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/byzantium#syriac-qustantinupolis", "civilization": "byzantium", "language": "syriac", "original_text": "ܩܘܣܛܢܛܝܢܘܦܘܠܝܣ", "transliteration": "Qusṭanṭīnupolis", "ipa": "/qus.tˤan.tˤiːnuˈpo.lis/", "literal_meaning": "Constantinople", "family": "constantinople", "derived_from": "byzantium-ancient-greek-konstantinoupolis", "era_start": 350, "era_end": 700, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Syriac church historiography: the Chronicle of Zuqnin (Pseudo-Dionysius of Tel-Maḥrē); Michael the Syrian, *Chronicle*; the Chronicle of Edessa." }, { "citation": "Payne Smith, R. *Thesaurus Syriacus*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879–1901." } ] }, { "id": "canaan-akkadian-kinahhi", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/canaan#akkadian-kinahhi", "civilization": "canaan", "language": "akkadian", "original_text": "𒆠𒈾𒄴𒄭", "transliteration": "Kinaḫḫi", "ipa": "/kiˈnaχχi/", "literal_meaning": "Canaan (the Egyptian-administered Levant)", "family": "kanaan", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1400, "era_end": -1300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Moran, William L. *The Amarna Letters*. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992 (EA 8, 9, 30, 36, 137, 151)." }, { "citation": "*Chicago Assyrian Dictionary* (CAD), University of Chicago, Vol. K, s.v. *kinaḫḫu*." } ] }, { "id": "canaan-ancient-greek-khanaan", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/canaan#ancient-greek-khanaan", "civilization": "canaan", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Χανααν", "transliteration": "Khanaan", "ipa": "/kʰa.naˈan/", "literal_meaning": "Canaan (the Septuagint transliteration of Hebrew Kĕnaʿan)", "family": "kanaan", "derived_from": "canaan-biblical-hebrew-kenaan", "era_start": -250, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Septuagint, Genesis 10:15–19; Exodus 6:4; Acts 7:11, 13:19 (Χανααν)." }, { "citation": "Eusebius, *Praeparatio Evangelica* 1.10 (quoting Philo of Byblos on Χνᾶ, the older name)." } ] }, { "id": "canaan-biblical-hebrew-kenaan", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/canaan#biblical-hebrew-kenaan", "civilization": "canaan", "language": "biblical-hebrew", "original_text": "כְּנַעַן", "transliteration": "Kĕnaʿan", "ipa": "/kənaˈʕan/", "literal_meaning": "Canaan", "family": "kanaan", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1000, "era_end": -200, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament* (HALOT), Leiden: Brill, 1994–2000, s.v. *kĕnaʿan*." }, { "citation": "Genesis 10:15–19, 11:31, 12:5; Exodus 6:4; Numbers 13; Joshua, passim." } ] }, { "id": "canaan-classical-arabic-kanan", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/canaan#classical-arabic-kanan", "civilization": "canaan", "language": "classical-arabic", "original_text": "كنعان", "transliteration": "Kanʿān", "ipa": "/kanˈʕaːn/", "literal_meaning": "Canaan", "family": "kanaan", "derived_from": null, "era_start": 700, "era_end": 1300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "al-Ṭabarī. *Taʾrīkh al-rusul wa-l-mulūk*, on the descendants of Noah." }, { "citation": "Lane, Edward William. *An Arabic-English Lexicon*. London: Williams and Norgate, 1863–1893, s.v. كنعان." } ] }, { "id": "canaan-geez-kanaan", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/canaan#geez-kanaan", "civilization": "canaan", "language": "geez", "original_text": "ከነዓን", "transliteration": "Kanaʿan", "ipa": "/kanaˈʕan/", "literal_meaning": "Canaan", "family": "kanaan", "derived_from": "canaan-ancient-greek-khanaan", "era_start": 350, "era_end": 700, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Ethiopic Old Testament (Genesis; Exodus; Joshua)." }, { "citation": "Dillmann, August. *Lexicon Linguae Aethiopicae*. Leipzig: Weigel, 1865." } ] }, { "id": "canaan-latin-chanaan", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/canaan#latin-chanaan", "civilization": "canaan", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Chanaan", "transliteration": "Chanaan", "ipa": "/ˈka.naːn/", "literal_meaning": "Canaan", "family": "kanaan", "derived_from": "canaan-ancient-greek-khanaan", "era_start": 380, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Jerome, *Vulgata*, Genesis 10:15–19; Exodus 6:4; Acts 13:19 (*Chanaan*)." }, { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Chanaan*." } ] }, { "id": "canaan-phoenician-kanaan", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/canaan#phoenician-kanaan", "civilization": "canaan", "language": "phoenician", "original_text": "𐤊𐤍𐤏𐤍", "transliteration": "Kanaʿan", "ipa": "*kanaˈʕan", "literal_meaning": "Canaan; the Canaanite land", "family": "kanaan", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1000, "era_end": -300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Krahmalkov, Charles R. *Phoenician-Punic Dictionary*. Leuven: Peeters, 2000, s.v. *knʿn*." }, { "citation": "Augustine of Hippo, *Expositio Epistulae ad Romanos* 13 (the Punic country-folk called themselves *Chanani*)." } ] }, { "id": "canaan-syriac-kenaan", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/canaan#syriac-kenaan", "civilization": "canaan", "language": "syriac", "original_text": "ܟܢܥܢ", "transliteration": "Kĕnaʿan", "ipa": "/kenˈʕan/", "literal_meaning": "Canaan", "family": "kanaan", "derived_from": "canaan-biblical-hebrew-kenaan", "era_start": 150, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Peshitta, Genesis 10:15–19; Exodus 6:4 (ܟܢܥܢ)." }, { "citation": "Payne Smith, R. *Thesaurus Syriacus*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879–1901, s.v. ܟܢܥܢ." } ] }, { "id": "canaan-ugaritic-knn", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/canaan#ugaritic-knn", "civilization": "canaan", "language": "ugaritic", "original_text": "𐎋𐎐𐎓𐎐", "transliteration": "Knʿn", "ipa": "*kanaʕnu", "literal_meaning": "Canaan; a Canaanite", "family": "kanaan", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1350, "era_end": -1190, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "del Olmo Lete, Gregorio, and Joaquín Sanmartín. *A Dictionary of the Ugaritic Language in the Alphabetic Tradition*. Leiden: Brill, 2003, s.v. *knʿny*." }, { "citation": "Rainey, Anson F. \"Ugarit and the Canaanites Again.\" *Israel Exploration Journal* 14 (1964): 101." } ] }, { "id": "cappadocia-ancient-greek-kappadokia", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/cappadocia#ancient-greek-kappadokia", "civilization": "cappadocia", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Καππαδοκία", "transliteration": "Kappadokía", "ipa": "/kap.pa.do.ˈki.a/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "katpatuka", "derived_from": "cappadocia-old-persian-katpatuka", "era_start": -500, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Herodotus, *Historiae* 1.71–73, 5.49; Strabo, *Geographica* 12.1–2." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. Καππαδοκία." } ] }, { "id": "cappadocia-latin-cappadocia", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/cappadocia#latin-cappadocia", "civilization": "cappadocia", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Cappadocia", "transliteration": "Cappadocia", "ipa": "/kap.paˈdo.ki.a/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "katpatuka", "derived_from": "cappadocia-ancient-greek-kappadokia", "era_start": -50, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 6.8.24; Tacitus, *Annales* 2.42, 6.41." }, { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Cappadocia*." } ] }, { "id": "cappadocia-old-persian-katpatuka", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/cappadocia#old-persian-katpatuka", "civilization": "cappadocia", "language": "old-persian", "original_text": "𐎣𐎫𐎱𐎬𐎢𐎣", "transliteration": "Katpatuka", "ipa": "*kat.pa.ˈtu.ka", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "katpatuka", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -520, "era_end": -330, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Darius I, Behistun inscription (DB) §6; Naqsh-e Rustam (DNa), the satrapy lists." }, { "citation": "Kent, Roland G. *Old Persian: Grammar, Texts, Lexicon*. 2nd ed. New Haven: American Oriental Society, 1953, s.v. *Katpatuka-*." } ] }, { "id": "carthage-ancient-greek-karkhedon", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/carthage#ancient-greek-karkhedon", "civilization": "carthage", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Καρχηδών", "transliteration": "Karkhēdṓn", "ipa": "/kar.kʰɛːˈdɔːn/", "literal_meaning": "Carthage (from Punic Qart-ḥadašt)", "family": "qarthadasht", "derived_from": "carthage-phoenician-qarthadasht", "era_start": -550, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. *Καρχηδών*." }, { "citation": "Herodotus, *Histories* 1.166–167, 7.165–167; Thucydides, *Histories* 6.2, 6.34." } ] }, { "id": "carthage-classical-arabic-qartajanna", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/carthage#classical-arabic-qartajanna", "civilization": "carthage", "language": "classical-arabic", "original_text": "قرطاجنة", "transliteration": "Qarṭājanna", "ipa": "/qarˈtˤaː.dʒan.na/", "literal_meaning": "Carthage (from Latin Carthāgine)", "family": "qarthadasht", "derived_from": "carthage-latin-carthago", "era_start": 650, "era_end": 1400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Yāqūt al-Ḥamawī. *Muʿjam al-Buldān*, s.v. قرطاجنة." }, { "citation": "*The Encyclopaedia of Islam*. 2nd ed. Leiden: Brill, 1960–2005, s.v. *Ḳarṭādjanna*." } ] }, { "id": "carthage-latin-carthago", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/carthage#latin-carthago", "civilization": "carthage", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Carthāgō", "transliteration": "Carthāgō", "ipa": "/karˈtʰaː.goː/", "literal_meaning": "Carthage (from Greek Karkhēdṓn, ultimately Punic Qart-ḥadašt)", "family": "qarthadasht", "derived_from": "carthage-ancient-greek-karkhedon", "era_start": -300, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Carthago*." }, { "citation": "Livy, *Ab Urbe Condita* 21; Virgil, *Aeneid* 1.12–14." } ] }, { "id": "carthage-phoenician-qarthadasht", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/carthage#phoenician-qarthadasht", "civilization": "carthage", "language": "phoenician", "original_text": "𐤒𐤓𐤕𐤇𐤃𐤔𐤕", "transliteration": "Qart-ḥadašt", "ipa": "*qart ħaˈdaʃt", "literal_meaning": "New City", "family": "qarthadasht", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -814, "era_end": -146, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Krahmalkov, Charles R. *Phoenician-Punic Dictionary*. Leuven: Peeters, 2000, s.v. *qrt*, *ḥdš*." }, { "citation": "Huss, Werner. *Geschichte der Karthager*. Munich: C. H. Beck, 1985." } ] }, { "id": "caspian-sea-ancient-greek-kaspia", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/caspian-sea#ancient-greek-kaspia", "civilization": "caspian-sea", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Κασπία θάλασσα", "transliteration": "Kaspía Thálassa", "ipa": "/kas.ˈpi.a ˈtʰa.las.sa/", "literal_meaning": "the Caspian Sea", "family": "kaspia", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -450, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Herodotus, *Historiae* 1.202–203 (the Caspian as an enclosed sea); Strabo, *Geographica* 11.6–7." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. Κάσπιος." } ] }, { "id": "caspian-sea-classical-arabic-bahr-al-khazar", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/caspian-sea#classical-arabic-bahr-al-khazar", "civilization": "caspian-sea", "language": "classical-arabic", "original_text": "بحر الخزر", "transliteration": "Baḥr al-Khazar", "ipa": "/baħr alˈxa.zar/", "literal_meaning": "the Sea of the Khazars", "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": 700, "era_end": 1300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "al-Masʿūdī, *Murūj al-Dhahab*. Ed. Pellat, Beirut, 1966–79." }, { "citation": "Yāqūt al-Ḥamawī, *Muʿjam al-Buldān*. Beirut: Dār Ṣādir, 1977, s.v. بحر الخزر." } ] }, { "id": "caspian-sea-latin-mare-caspium", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/caspian-sea#latin-mare-caspium", "civilization": "caspian-sea", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Mare Caspium", "transliteration": "Mare Caspium", "ipa": "/ˈma.re ˈkas.pi.um/", "literal_meaning": "the Caspian Sea", "family": "kaspia", "derived_from": "caspian-sea-ancient-greek-kaspia", "era_start": -50, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 6.15.36–38; Pomponius Mela, *De Chorographia* 3.5." }, { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Caspius*." } ] }, { "id": "caucasus-ancient-greek-kaukasos", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/caucasus#ancient-greek-kaukasos", "civilization": "caucasus", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Καύκασος", "transliteration": "Kaúkasos", "ipa": "/ˈkau̯.ka.sos/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "kaukasos", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -500, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Aeschylus, *Prometheus Bound* 719–722; Herodotus, *Historiae* 1.203, 3.97; Strabo, *Geographica* 11.2, 11.5." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. Καύκασος." } ] }, { "id": "caucasus-classical-arabic-al-qabq", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/caucasus#classical-arabic-al-qabq", "civilization": "caucasus", "language": "classical-arabic", "original_text": "القبق", "transliteration": "al-Qabq", "ipa": "/alˈqabq/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": 800, "era_end": 1300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "al-Masʿūdī, *Murūj al-Dhahab*. Ed. Pellat, Beirut, 1966–79 (the peoples of *al-Qabq*)." }, { "citation": "Yāqūt al-Ḥamawī, *Muʿjam al-Buldān*. Beirut: Dār Ṣādir, 1977, s.v. القبق." } ] }, { "id": "caucasus-latin-caucasus", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/caucasus#latin-caucasus", "civilization": "caucasus", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Caucasus", "transliteration": "Caucasus", "ipa": "/ˈkau̯.ka.sus/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "kaukasos", "derived_from": "caucasus-ancient-greek-kaukasos", "era_start": -50, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 5.27, 6.11–12; Pomponius Mela, *De Chorographia* 1.15." }, { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Caucasus*." } ] }, { "id": "china-ancient-greek-seres", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/china#ancient-greek-seres", "civilization": "china", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Σῆρες", "transliteration": "Sêres", "ipa": "/ˈsɛː.res/", "literal_meaning": "the silk people", "family": "seres", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -50, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Strabo, *Geographica* 15.1.34, 11.11.1 (the long-lived Seres of the far east)." }, { "citation": "Ptolemy, *Geography* 6.16 (Sērikḗ and its capital Sēra)." }, { "citation": "Pausanias, *Description of Greece* 6.26.6–9 (the sēr and the making of silk)." } ] }, { "id": "china-ancient-greek-sinai", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/china#ancient-greek-sinai", "civilization": "china", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Σῖναι", "transliteration": "Sînai", "ipa": "/ˈsiː.nai̯/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "cina", "derived_from": null, "era_start": 50, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Ptolemy, *Geography* 7.3 (the Sînai and their metropolis at the eastern edge of the oikoumene)." }, { "citation": "*Periplus Maris Erythraei* 64 (the inland city Thína, source of silk). Casson, Lionel, ed. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989." } ] }, { "id": "china-biblical-hebrew-sinim", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/china#biblical-hebrew-sinim", "civilization": "china", "language": "biblical-hebrew", "original_text": "סינים", "transliteration": "Sînîm", "ipa": "/siːˈniːm/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": -540, "era_end": -500, "confidence": "disputed", "sources": [ { "citation": "Isaiah 49:12 (Masoretic Text): \"...and these from the land of Sînîm.\"" }, { "citation": "1QIsaa (Great Isaiah Scroll, Qumran), reading סוניים (Sĕwēnîm, Syene)." }, { "citation": "Blenkinsopp, Joseph. *Isaiah 40–55*. Anchor Bible 19A. New York: Doubleday, 2002, on 49:12." } ] }, { "id": "china-classical-arabic-sin", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/china#classical-arabic-sin", "civilization": "china", "language": "classical-arabic", "original_text": "الصين", "transliteration": "al-Ṣīn", "ipa": "/asˤˈsˤiːn/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "cina", "derived_from": "china-middle-persian-cin", "era_start": 600, "era_end": 1000, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Akhbār al-Ṣīn wa-l-Hind* (Accounts of China and India), 851 CE. Sauvaget, Jean, ed. Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1948." }, { "citation": "Yāqūt al-Ḥamawī. *Muʿjam al-Buldān*. Beirut: Dār Ṣādir, s.v. الصين (al-Ṣīn)." } ] }, { "id": "china-classical-chinese-huaxia", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/china#classical-chinese-huaxia", "civilization": "china", "language": "classical-chinese", "original_text": "華夏", "transliteration": "Huáxià", "ipa": null, "literal_meaning": "the Hua and the Xia; the Chinese cultural community", "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": -550, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Zuozhuan* (Zuo Tradition), Duke Ding 10 (定公十年): \"裔不謀夏，夷不亂華.\"" }, { "citation": "Wilkinson, Endymion. *Chinese History: A New Manual*. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia Center, 2013, s.v. names of China." } ] }, { "id": "china-classical-chinese-zhongguo", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/china#classical-chinese-zhongguo", "civilization": "china", "language": "classical-chinese", "original_text": "中國", "transliteration": "Zhōngguó", "ipa": null, "literal_meaning": "the central state; the Middle Kingdom", "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1040, "era_end": 900, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "He zun (何尊) bronze vessel inscription, Western Zhou, c. 1038 BCE (Baoji Bronzeware Museum)." }, { "citation": "Wilkinson, Endymion. *Chinese History: A New Manual*. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia Center, 2013, s.v. names of China." } ] }, { "id": "china-latin-seres", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/china#latin-seres", "civilization": "china", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Sēres", "transliteration": "Sēres", "ipa": "/ˈseː.reːs/", "literal_meaning": "the silk people", "family": "seres", "derived_from": "china-ancient-greek-seres", "era_start": -30, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Virgil, *Georgics* 2.121 (the Seres combing fine fleeces from the leaves)." }, { "citation": "Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 6.20, 6.54 (the Seres and the silk trade)." }, { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Seres*, *Serica*." } ] }, { "id": "china-latin-sinae", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/china#latin-sinae", "civilization": "china", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Sīnae", "transliteration": "Sīnae", "ipa": "/ˈsiː.nae̯/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "cina", "derived_from": "china-ancient-greek-sinai", "era_start": 150, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Smith, William, ed. *Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography*. London: Walton and Maberly, 1854, s.v. *Sinae*." }, { "citation": "Ammianus Marcellinus, *Res Gestae* 23.6.64 (the Serica and its peoples on the far eastern frontier)." } ] }, { "id": "china-middle-persian-cin", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/china#middle-persian-cin", "civilization": "china", "language": "middle-persian", "original_text": "𐫝𐫏𐫗", "transliteration": "Čīn", "ipa": "/t͡ʃiːn/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "cina", "derived_from": null, "era_start": 250, "era_end": 900, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Durkin-Meisterernst, Desmond. *Dictionary of Manichaean Middle Persian and Parthian*. Dictionary of Manichaean Texts III/1. Turnhout: Brepols, 2004, s.v. *cyn*." }, { "citation": "Everson, Michael, Desmond Durkin-Meisterernst, et al. *Second revised proposal for encoding the Manichaean script* (ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2 N4029R), 2011 (script and letter values)." } ] }, { "id": "china-sanskrit-cina", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/china#sanskrit-cina", "civilization": "china", "language": "sanskrit", "original_text": "चीन", "transliteration": "Cīna", "ipa": "/ˈt͡ʃiːnɐ/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "cina", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -300, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Mahābhārata* 2.47, 3.48 (the Cīna among the northern peoples bearing tribute)." }, { "citation": "*Manusmṛti* 10.44 (the Cīnas among peoples fallen from rank)." }, { "citation": "Monier-Williams, Monier. *A Sanskrit-English Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1899, s.v. *cīna*." } ] }, { "id": "china-syriac-beth-sinaye", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/china#syriac-beth-sinaye", "civilization": "china", "language": "syriac", "original_text": "ܒܝܬ ܣܝܢܝܐ", "transliteration": "Bēth Sīnāyē", "ipa": "/beːθ siːˈnaːjeː/", "literal_meaning": "the land of the Chinese", "family": "cina", "derived_from": null, "era_start": 550, "era_end": 900, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Syriac Heritage* (GEDSH). Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press, 2011, s.v. \"China, Syriac Christianity in.\"" }, { "citation": "Xi'an (Nestorian) Stele, 781 CE: the Syriac colophon naming the metropolitan see of Sīnistān (ܣܝܢܣܬܐܢ)." } ] }, { "id": "cilicia-akkadian-hilakku", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/cilicia#akkadian-hilakku", "civilization": "cilicia", "language": "akkadian", "original_text": "𒄭𒆷𒀝𒆪", "transliteration": "Ḫilakku", "ipa": "/ħiˈlak.ku/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": -850, "era_end": -610, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Royal inscriptions of Shalmaneser III, Sennacherib, and Esarhaddon (the campaigns into *Ḫilakku* and *Que*)." }, { "citation": "*Chicago Assyrian Dictionary* (CAD), s.v. *Ḫilakku*; Bagg, Ariel. *Die Orts- und Gewässernamen der neuassyrischen Zeit*." } ] }, { "id": "cilicia-ancient-greek-kilikia", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/cilicia#ancient-greek-kilikia", "civilization": "cilicia", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Κιλικία", "transliteration": "Kilikía", "ipa": "/ki.li.ˈki.a/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "kilikia", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -500, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Herodotus, *Historiae* 1.72, 5.52; Xenophon, *Anabasis* 1.2.21–27 (the Cilician Gates)." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. Κιλικία." } ] }, { "id": "cilicia-hittite-kizzuwatna", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/cilicia#hittite-kizzuwatna", "civilization": "cilicia", "language": "hittite", "original_text": "𒆠𒄑𒍪𒉿𒀜𒈾", "transliteration": "Kizzuwatna", "ipa": "*kit.tsu.ˈwat.na", "literal_meaning": null, "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1500, "era_end": -1190, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Treaty of Šunaššura (CTH 41), Hittite-Kizzuwatna; Beckman, Gary. *Hittite Diplomatic Texts*. 2nd ed. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1999." }, { "citation": "Bryce, Trevor. *The Kingdom of the Hittites*. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005." } ] }, { "id": "cilicia-latin-cilicia", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/cilicia#latin-cilicia", "civilization": "cilicia", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Cilicia", "transliteration": "Cilicia", "ipa": "/kiˈli.ki.a/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "kilikia", "derived_from": "cilicia-ancient-greek-kilikia", "era_start": -100, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Cicero, *Epistulae ad Familiares* 2–3, 15 (as governor of Cilicia, 51–50 BCE)." }, { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Cilicia*." } ] }, { "id": "cimmerians-akkadian-gimirru", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/cimmerians#akkadian-gimirru", "civilization": "cimmerians", "language": "akkadian", "original_text": "𒄀𒈪𒅕𒊒", "transliteration": "Gimirru", "ipa": "/ɡiˈmir.ru/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "gomer", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -720, "era_end": -640, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Royal inscriptions and oracle queries of Sargon II, Esarhaddon, and Ashurbanipal (the *Gimirrāya* in Urartu, Tabal, and Lydia)." }, { "citation": "Ivantchik, Askold. *Les Cimmériens au Proche-Orient*. Fribourg: Universitätsverlag, 1993." } ] }, { "id": "cimmerians-ancient-greek-kimmerioi", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/cimmerians#ancient-greek-kimmerioi", "civilization": "cimmerians", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Κιμμέριοι", "transliteration": "Kimmérioi", "ipa": "/kim.ˈme.ri.oi̯/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "gomer", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -700, "era_end": 300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Homer, *Odyssey* 11.13–19 (the Kimmérioi at the edge of the world); Herodotus, *Historiae* 1.6, 1.15, 4.11–12." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. Κιμμέριοι." } ] }, { "id": "cimmerians-biblical-hebrew-gomer", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/cimmerians#biblical-hebrew-gomer", "civilization": "cimmerians", "language": "biblical-hebrew", "original_text": "גֹּמֶר", "transliteration": "Gomer", "ipa": "/ˈɡoː.mɛr/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "gomer", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -700, "era_end": -200, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Genesis 10:2–3; 1 Chronicles 1:5–6; Ezekiel 38:6." }, { "citation": "Köhler, Ludwig, and Walter Baumgartner. *Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament* (HALOT). Leiden: Brill, 1994–2000, s.v. גֹּמֶר." } ] }, { "id": "cimmerians-latin-cimmerii", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/cimmerians#latin-cimmerii", "civilization": "cimmerians", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Cimmerii", "transliteration": "Cimmerii", "ipa": "/kimˈme.ri.iː/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "gomer", "derived_from": "cimmerians-ancient-greek-kimmerioi", "era_start": -50, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Cicero, *Academica* 2.61; Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 6.39; Ovid, *Metamorphoses* 11.592–594 (the Cimmerian land of sleep)." }, { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Cimmerii*." } ] }, { "id": "corinth-ancient-greek-korinthos", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/corinth#ancient-greek-korinthos", "civilization": "corinth", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Κόρινθος", "transliteration": "Kórinthos", "ipa": "/ˈko.rin.tʰos/", "literal_meaning": "Corinth", "family": "korinthos", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -900, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Strabo, *Geography* 8.6.20–23 (the Isthmus, the city, the cult of Aphrodite, the Roman refoundation); Homer, *Iliad* 2.570." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. Κόρινθος." } ] }, { "id": "corinth-latin-corinthus", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/corinth#latin-corinthus", "civilization": "corinth", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Corinthus", "transliteration": "Corinthus", "ipa": "/koˈrin.tʰus/", "literal_meaning": "Corinth", "family": "korinthos", "derived_from": "corinth-ancient-greek-korinthos", "era_start": -200, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Corinthus*; Cicero, *De Lege Agraria* 2.87 (\"the light of all Greece\")." } ] }, { "id": "corinth-syriac-qurintos", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/corinth#syriac-qurintos", "civilization": "corinth", "language": "syriac", "original_text": "ܩܘܪܢܬܘܣ", "transliteration": "Qurintos", "ipa": "/qurinˈtos/", "literal_meaning": "Corinth", "family": "korinthos", "derived_from": "corinth-ancient-greek-korinthos", "era_start": 50, "era_end": 700, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Peshitta, 1 Corinthians 1:2 (ܕܒܩܘܪܢܬܘܣ, \"which is at Corinth\"); Acts 18; the two Epistles to the Corinthians." }, { "citation": "Payne Smith, R. *Thesaurus Syriacus*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879–1901, s.v. ܩܘܪܢܬܘܣ." } ] }, { "id": "damascus-akkadian-dimashqa", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/damascus#akkadian-dimashqa", "civilization": "damascus", "language": "akkadian", "original_text": "𒁲𒈦𒋡", "transliteration": "Dimašqa", "ipa": "/diˈmaʃqa/", "literal_meaning": "Damascus", "family": "dimashq", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1360, "era_end": -700, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Moran, William L. *The Amarna Letters*. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992 (EA 53, 107, 197; Biryawaza of Dimašqa)." }, { "citation": "Hess, Richard S. *Amarna Personal Names*. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1993." } ] }, { "id": "damascus-akkadian-imerishu", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/damascus#akkadian-imerishu", "civilization": "damascus", "language": "akkadian", "original_text": "𒀲𒋙", "transliteration": "Ša-imērišu", "ipa": "/ʃa.iˈmeːriʃu/", "literal_meaning": "the place of its donkeys (an Assyrian by-name for Damascus)", "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": -900, "era_end": -700, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Chicago Assyrian Dictionary* (CAD), University of Chicago, Vol. I/J, s.v. *imēru*." }, { "citation": "Tadmor, Hayim. *The Inscriptions of Tiglath-Pileser III, King of Assyria*. Jerusalem: Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities, 1994." } ] }, { "id": "damascus-ancient-greek-damaskos", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/damascus#ancient-greek-damaskos", "civilization": "damascus", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Δαμασκός", "transliteration": "Damaskós", "ipa": "/da.maˈskos/", "literal_meaning": "Damascus", "family": "dimashq", "derived_from": "damascus-imperial-aramaic-damashq", "era_start": -300, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Strabo, *Geography* 16.2.20." }, { "citation": "Acts 9:1–25 (Paul's conversion on the road to Damascus)." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. *Δαμασκός*." } ] }, { "id": "damascus-biblical-hebrew-dammeseq", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/damascus#biblical-hebrew-dammeseq", "civilization": "damascus", "language": "biblical-hebrew", "original_text": "דַּמֶּשֶׂק", "transliteration": "Dammeśeq", "ipa": "/damˈmɛːsɛq/", "literal_meaning": "Damascus", "family": "dimashq", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -900, "era_end": -400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament* (HALOT), Leiden: Brill, 1994–2000, s.v. *dammeśeq*." }, { "citation": "Genesis 15:2; 2 Samuel 8:5–6; 1 Kings 11:24; 2 Kings 16:9; Isaiah 7:8; Amos 1:3–5." } ] }, { "id": "damascus-biblical-hebrew-darmeseq", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/damascus#biblical-hebrew-darmeseq", "civilization": "damascus", "language": "biblical-hebrew", "original_text": "דַּרְמֶשֶׂק", "transliteration": "Darmeśeq", "ipa": "/darˈmɛːsɛq/", "literal_meaning": "Damascus (with intrusive resh)", "family": "dimashq", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -400, "era_end": -300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament* (HALOT), Leiden: Brill, 1994–2000, s.v. *dammeśeq*, *darmeśeq*." }, { "citation": "1 Chronicles 18:5–6; 2 Chronicles 16:2, 24:23, 28:5, 28:23." } ] }, { "id": "damascus-classical-arabic-dimashq", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/damascus#classical-arabic-dimashq", "civilization": "damascus", "language": "classical-arabic", "original_text": "دمشق", "transliteration": "Dimashq", "ipa": "/diˈmaʃq/", "literal_meaning": "Damascus", "family": "dimashq", "derived_from": "damascus-imperial-aramaic-damashq", "era_start": 600, "era_end": 1300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Yāqūt al-Ḥamawī. *Muʿjam al-Buldān*, s.v. دمشق." }, { "citation": "Lane, Edward William. *An Arabic-English Lexicon*. London: Williams and Norgate, 1863–1893, s.v. دمشق." } ] }, { "id": "damascus-egyptian-tjmsq", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/damascus#egyptian-tjmsq", "civilization": "damascus", "language": "egyptian", "original_text": "𓍘𓄟𓊃𓈎𓅱", "transliteration": "Ṯmsqw", "ipa": "*timaːsqu", "literal_meaning": "Damascus (etymology uncertain)", "family": "dimashq", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1450, "era_end": -1300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Gauthier, Henri. *Dictionnaire des noms géographiques contenus dans les textes hiéroglyphiques*. Cairo: IFAO, 1925–1931." }, { "citation": "Simons, Jan. *Handbook for the Study of Egyptian Topographical Lists Relating to Western Asia*. Leiden: Brill, 1937 (Thutmose III, Karnak list, no. 13)." } ] }, { "id": "damascus-geez-damasqo", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/damascus#geez-damasqo", "civilization": "damascus", "language": "geez", "original_text": "ደማስቆ", "transliteration": "Damasqo", "ipa": "/damasˈqo/", "literal_meaning": "Damascus", "family": "dimashq", "derived_from": "damascus-ancient-greek-damaskos", "era_start": 350, "era_end": 700, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Acts 9:1–25 (Ethiopic New Testament)." }, { "citation": "Dillmann, August. *Lexicon Linguae Aethiopicae*. Leipzig: Weigel, 1865." } ] }, { "id": "damascus-imperial-aramaic-damashq", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/damascus#imperial-aramaic-damashq", "civilization": "damascus", "language": "imperial-aramaic", "original_text": "דמשק", "transliteration": "Dammaśq", "ipa": "*damˈmaʃq", "literal_meaning": "Damascus", "family": "dimashq", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -900, "era_end": -300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Hoftijzer, J., and K. Jongeling. *Dictionary of the North-West Semitic Inscriptions*. Leiden: Brill, 1995, s.v. *dmśq*." }, { "citation": "Tel Dan stele; Zakkur stele (Old Aramaic royal inscriptions referencing Aram-Damascus)." } ] }, { "id": "damascus-latin-damascus", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/damascus#latin-damascus", "civilization": "damascus", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Damascus", "transliteration": "Damascus", "ipa": "/daˈmas.kus/", "literal_meaning": "Damascus", "family": "dimashq", "derived_from": "damascus-ancient-greek-damaskos", "era_start": -50, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 5.74." }, { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Damascus*." } ] }, { "id": "damascus-syriac-darmsuq", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/damascus#syriac-darmsuq", "civilization": "damascus", "language": "syriac", "original_text": "ܕܪܡܣܘܩ", "transliteration": "Darmsuq", "ipa": "/darˈmsuːq/", "literal_meaning": "Damascus (with intrusive resh)", "family": "dimashq", "derived_from": null, "era_start": 150, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Payne Smith, R. *Thesaurus Syriacus*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879–1901, s.v. ܕܪܡܣܘܩ." }, { "citation": "Peshitta, Acts 9:1–25; 2 Corinthians 11:32." } ] }, { "id": "dead-sea-ancient-greek-asphaltitis", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/dead-sea#ancient-greek-asphaltitis", "civilization": "dead-sea", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Λίμνη Ἀσφαλτῖτις", "transliteration": "Límnē Asphaltîtis", "ipa": "/ˈlim.nɛː as.pʰal.ˈtiː.tis/", "literal_meaning": "the Asphalt Lake", "family": "asphaltitis", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -350, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Diodorus Siculus, *Bibliotheca Historica* 2.48, 19.98–99." }, { "citation": "Strabo, *Geographica* 16.2.42–44; Josephus, *Bellum Judaicum* 4.476–485." } ] }, { "id": "dead-sea-biblical-hebrew-hayam-haqadmoni", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/dead-sea#biblical-hebrew-hayam-haqadmoni", "civilization": "dead-sea", "language": "biblical-hebrew", "original_text": "הַיָּם הַקַּדְמוֹנִי", "transliteration": "ha-Yam ha-Qadmonī", "ipa": "/hajˈjaːm haqqaðˈmoːni/", "literal_meaning": "the Eastern Sea", "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": -600, "era_end": -200, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Ezekiel 47:18; Joel 2:20; Zechariah 14:8." }, { "citation": "Köhler, Ludwig, and Walter Baumgartner. *Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament* (HALOT). Leiden: Brill, 1994–2000, s.v. קַדְמוֹנִי." } ] }, { "id": "dead-sea-biblical-hebrew-yam-hamelah", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/dead-sea#biblical-hebrew-yam-hamelah", "civilization": "dead-sea", "language": "biblical-hebrew", "original_text": "יָם הַמֶּלַח", "transliteration": "Yam ha-Melaḥ", "ipa": "/jaːm hamˈmɛlaħ/", "literal_meaning": "the Salt Sea", "family": "salt-sea", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1200, "era_end": -200, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Genesis 14:3; Numbers 34:3, 34:12; Deuteronomy 3:17; Joshua 15:2, 15:5." }, { "citation": "Köhler, Ludwig, and Walter Baumgartner. *Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament* (HALOT). Leiden: Brill, 1994–2000, s.v. מֶלַח." } ] }, { "id": "dead-sea-classical-arabic-bahr-lut", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/dead-sea#classical-arabic-bahr-lut", "civilization": "dead-sea", "language": "classical-arabic", "original_text": "بحر لوط", "transliteration": "Baḥr Lūṭ", "ipa": "/baħr luːtˤ/", "literal_meaning": "the Sea of Lot", "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": 700, "era_end": 1300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Yāqūt al-Ḥamawī, *Muʿjam al-Buldān*. Beirut: Dār Ṣādir, 1977, s.v. بحيرة لوط." }, { "citation": "al-Maqdisī, *Aḥsan al-Taqāsīm fī Maʿrifat al-Aqālīm*. Ed. de Goeje, Leiden: Brill, 1877; cf. Qurʼan, *Sūrat Hūd* (11), 77–83." } ] }, { "id": "dead-sea-jewish-babylonian-aramaic-yamma-demilha", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/dead-sea#jewish-babylonian-aramaic-yamma-demilha", "civilization": "dead-sea", "language": "jewish-babylonian-aramaic", "original_text": "ימא דמלחא", "transliteration": "Yammā de-Milḥā", "ipa": "/jamˈmaː dmilˈħaː/", "literal_meaning": "the Sea of Salt", "family": "salt-sea", "derived_from": "dead-sea-biblical-hebrew-yam-hamelah", "era_start": 100, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Targum Onqelos, Genesis 14:3; Numbers 34:3, 34:12." }, { "citation": "Jastrow, Marcus. *A Dictionary of the Targumim, the Talmud Bavli and Yerushalmi, and the Midrashic Literature*. London/New York, 1903, s.v. מִלְחָא." } ] }, { "id": "dead-sea-latin-lacus-asphaltites", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/dead-sea#latin-lacus-asphaltites", "civilization": "dead-sea", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Lacus Asphaltites", "transliteration": "Lacus Asphaltites", "ipa": "/ˈla.kus as.pʰal.ˈtiː.teːs/", "literal_meaning": "the Asphalt Lake", "family": "asphaltitis", "derived_from": "dead-sea-ancient-greek-asphaltitis", "era_start": -50, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 5.15.71–73." }, { "citation": "Tacitus, *Historiae* 5.6; Justin, *Epitome* 36.3." } ] }, { "id": "deccan-ancient-greek-dachinabades", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/deccan#ancient-greek-dachinabades", "civilization": "deccan", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Δαχιναβάδης", "transliteration": "Dachinabádēs", "ipa": "/da.kʰi.naˈba.dɛːs/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "dakshinapatha", "derived_from": "deccan-sanskrit-dakshinapatha", "era_start": 50, "era_end": 100, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Periplus Maris Erythraei* 50–51 (Dachinabades, the inland region beyond Barygaza; \"dachanos in the native tongue means south\"; its towns Paithana and Tagara)." } ] }, { "id": "deccan-sanskrit-dakshinapatha", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/deccan#sanskrit-dakshinapatha", "civilization": "deccan", "language": "sanskrit", "original_text": "दक्षिणापथ", "transliteration": "Dakṣiṇāpatha", "ipa": "/dɐkˌʂiɳaːˈpɐt̪ʰɐ/", "literal_meaning": "the southern road; the southern region", "family": "dakshinapatha", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -400, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Sutta Nipāta*, Pārāyana-vagga (the brahmin Bāvari dwelling on the Godhāvarī in the Dakkhiṇāpatha)." }, { "citation": "Kauṭilya, *Arthaśāstra* 7.12 (the goods of the dakṣiṇāpatha, the southern trade-route); Monier-Williams, s.v. *dakṣiṇāpatha*." } ] }, { "id": "egypt-akkadian-misru", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/egypt#akkadian-misru", "civilization": "egypt", "language": "akkadian", "original_text": "𒈪𒄠", "transliteration": "Miṣru", "ipa": "/misˤ.ru/", "literal_meaning": "borderland; frontier", "family": "msr", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1500, "era_end": -500, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Chicago Assyrian Dictionary* (CAD), University of Chicago, Vol. M/2, s.v. *miṣru*." }, { "citation": "Moran, William L. *The Amarna Letters*. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992." }, { "citation": "Black, Jeremy, Andrew George, and Nicholas Postgate. *A Concise Dictionary of Akkadian*. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2000, s.v. *miṣru*." } ] }, { "id": "egypt-ancient-greek-aigyptos", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/egypt#ancient-greek-aigyptos", "civilization": "egypt", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Αἴγυπτος", "transliteration": "Aígyptos", "ipa": "/ai̯.ɡyp.tos/", "literal_meaning": "Egypt (toponym; etymology disputed)", "family": "aigyptos", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -800, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Homer, *Odyssey* 4.83, 14.246, 17.426." }, { "citation": "Beekes, Robert. *Etymological Dictionary of Greek*. Leiden: Brill, 2010, s.v. *Aígyptos*." }, { "citation": "Liddell, H. G., and R. Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon*. 9th ed., rev. H. S. Jones. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. *Aígyptos*." } ] }, { "id": "egypt-biblical-hebrew-misrayim", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/egypt#biblical-hebrew-misrayim", "civilization": "egypt", "language": "biblical-hebrew", "original_text": "מִצְרַיִם", "transliteration": "Miṣrayim", "ipa": "/misˤˈʁajim/", "literal_meaning": "the two Miṣrs (traditional reading); border-land", "family": "msr", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1200, "era_end": -100, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament* (HALOT), Leiden: Brill, 1994–2000, s.v. *miṣrayim*." }, { "citation": "Genesis 10:6, 10:13; Exodus 1:1 onward." }, { "citation": "Köhler, Ludwig, and Walter Baumgartner. *The Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament*. 5 vols. Leiden: Brill, 1994–2000." } ] }, { "id": "egypt-classical-arabic-misr", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/egypt#classical-arabic-misr", "civilization": "egypt", "language": "classical-arabic", "original_text": "مصر", "transliteration": "Miṣr", "ipa": "/misˤr/", "literal_meaning": "Egypt (from the Semitic root mṣr)", "family": "msr", "derived_from": null, "era_start": 600, "era_end": 1300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Lane, Edward William. *An Arabic-English Lexicon*. London: Williams and Norgate, 1863–1893, s.v. مصر." }, { "citation": "Qur'an, *Sūrat Yūsuf* (12), passim." } ] }, { "id": "egypt-coptic-keme", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/egypt#coptic-keme", "civilization": "egypt", "language": "coptic", "original_text": "ⲕⲏⲙⲉ", "transliteration": "Kēme", "ipa": "/ˈkeːmə/", "literal_meaning": "the Black Land", "family": "kemet", "derived_from": "egypt-egyptian-kemet", "era_start": 200, "era_end": 1300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Crum, W. E. *A Coptic Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1939, s.v. ⲕⲏⲙⲉ." }, { "citation": "Vycichl, Werner. *Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue copte*. Peeters, 1983, s.v. ⲕⲏⲙⲉ." } ] }, { "id": "egypt-demotic-kmy", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/egypt#demotic-kmy", "civilization": "egypt", "language": "demotic", "original_text": "", "transliteration": "kmy", "ipa": "*kmiː", "literal_meaning": "the Black Land", "family": "kemet", "derived_from": "egypt-egyptian-kemet", "era_start": -650, "era_end": 450, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Erichsen, Wolja. *Demotisches Glossar*. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard, 1954, s.v. *km*." }, { "citation": "*Chicago Demotic Dictionary*. Oriental Institute, University of Chicago, s.v. *km*.", "url": "https://oi.uchicago.edu/research/chicago-demotic-dictionary-cdd" } ] }, { "id": "egypt-egyptian-kemet", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/egypt#egyptian-kemet", "civilization": "egypt", "language": "egyptian", "original_text": "𓆎𓅓𓏏", "transliteration": "km.t", "ipa": "*kuːmat", "literal_meaning": "the Black Land", "family": "kemet", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -2000, "era_end": -1300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Loprieno, Antonio. *Ancient Egyptian: A Linguistic Introduction*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995." }, { "citation": "Allen, James P. *Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs*. 3rd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014." }, { "citation": "Erman, Adolf, and Hermann Grapow. *Wörterbuch der ägyptischen Sprache*. 5 vols. Leipzig: J. C. Hinrichs, 1926–1953, s.v. *km.t*." } ] }, { "id": "egypt-elamite-mudraya", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/egypt#elamite-mudraya", "civilization": "egypt", "language": "elamite", "original_text": "𒈬𒁺𒊏𒀀", "transliteration": "Mudraya", "ipa": "*mudraja", "literal_meaning": "Egypt (borrowed from Old Persian)", "family": "msr", "derived_from": "egypt-old-persian-mudraya", "era_start": -520, "era_end": -330, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Hinz, Walther, and Heidemarie Koch. *Elamisches Wörterbuch*. 2 vols. Berlin: Dietrich Reimer, 1987, s.v. *Mudraya*." }, { "citation": "Kent, Roland G. *Old Persian: Grammar, Texts, Lexicon*. 2nd ed. New Haven: American Oriental Society, 1953." } ] }, { "id": "egypt-geez-gebs", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/egypt#geez-gebs", "civilization": "egypt", "language": "geez", "original_text": "ግብጽ", "transliteration": "Gəbṣ", "ipa": "/ˈɡɨbsˤ/", "literal_meaning": "Egypt (ultimately from a form related to Greek Aígyptos)", "family": "aigyptos", "derived_from": null, "era_start": 350, "era_end": 1500, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Leslau, Wolf. *Comparative Dictionary of Geʿez (Classical Ethiopic)*. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1987, s.v. *gǝbṣ*." }, { "citation": "Uhlig, Siegbert, ed. *Encyclopaedia Aethiopica*. 5 vols. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2003–2014." } ] }, { "id": "egypt-hittite-mizri", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/egypt#hittite-mizri", "civilization": "egypt", "language": "hittite", "original_text": "𒈪𒄑𒊑", "transliteration": "Mizri", "ipa": "*mitsri", "literal_meaning": "Egypt (borrowed via Akkadian)", "family": "msr", "derived_from": "egypt-akkadian-misru", "era_start": -1400, "era_end": -1180, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Edel, Elmar. *Die ägyptisch-hethitische Korrespondenz aus Boghazköi in babylonischer und hethitischer Sprache*. 2 vols. Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag, 1994." }, { "citation": "Friedrich, Johannes, and Annelies Kammenhuber. *Hethitisches Wörterbuch*. Heidelberg: Carl Winter, 1975–, s.v. *Mizri*." } ] }, { "id": "egypt-imperial-aramaic-msryn", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/egypt#imperial-aramaic-msryn", "civilization": "egypt", "language": "imperial-aramaic", "original_text": "מצרין", "transliteration": "Mṣryn", "ipa": "*miṣˈrajin", "literal_meaning": "Egypt (from the Semitic root mṣr)", "family": "msr", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -500, "era_end": -200, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Porten, Bezalel, and Ada Yardeni. *Textbook of Aramaic Documents from Ancient Egypt* (TADAE). 4 vols. Jerusalem: Hebrew University, 1986–1999." }, { "citation": "Hoftijzer, J., and K. Jongeling. *Dictionary of the North-West Semitic Inscriptions*. Leiden: Brill, 1995, s.v. *mṣr*." } ] }, { "id": "egypt-jewish-babylonian-aramaic-misrayim", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/egypt#jewish-babylonian-aramaic-misrayim", "civilization": "egypt", "language": "jewish-babylonian-aramaic", "original_text": "מצרים", "transliteration": "Miṣrayim", "ipa": "/misˈrajim/", "literal_meaning": "Egypt", "family": "msr", "derived_from": null, "era_start": 200, "era_end": 700, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Sokoloff, Michael. *A Dictionary of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic*. Ramat-Gan: Bar Ilan University Press, 2002, s.v. מצרים." }, { "citation": "Babylonian Talmud, b. *Pesaḥim* 116a–b (the Passover Haggadah)." } ] }, { "id": "egypt-latin-aegyptus", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/egypt#latin-aegyptus", "civilization": "egypt", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Aegyptus", "transliteration": "Aegyptus", "ipa": "/ae̯ˈɡyp.tus/", "literal_meaning": "Egypt (toponym; borrowed from Greek)", "family": "aigyptos", "derived_from": "egypt-ancient-greek-aigyptos", "era_start": -200, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Augustus, *Res Gestae Divi Augusti* 27." }, { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Aegyptus*." }, { "citation": "Jerome, *Vulgata*, passim (Exodus, Matthew, etc.)." } ] }, { "id": "egypt-middle-persian-misr", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/egypt#middle-persian-misr", "civilization": "egypt", "language": "middle-persian", "original_text": "𐭬𐭱𐭥𐭩", "transliteration": "Mišr", "ipa": "*miʃr", "literal_meaning": "Egypt (from the Semitic root mṣr, preserved through Iranian phonological adaptation)", "family": "msr", "derived_from": null, "era_start": 200, "era_end": 900, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "MacKenzie, D. N. *A Concise Pahlavi Dictionary*. London: Oxford University Press, 1971, s.v. *mišr*." }, { "citation": "Bailey, H. W. *Zoroastrian Problems in the Ninth-Century Books*. 2nd ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971." } ] }, { "id": "egypt-old-persian-mudraya", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/egypt#old-persian-mudraya", "civilization": "egypt", "language": "old-persian", "original_text": "𐎸𐎢𐎭𐎼𐎠𐎹", "transliteration": "Mudrāya", "ipa": "/muˈdraː.ja/", "literal_meaning": "Egypt (loaned from Semitic mṣr and reshaped by Iranian morphology)", "family": "msr", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -525, "era_end": -330, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Kent, Roland G. *Old Persian: Grammar, Texts, Lexicon*. 2nd ed. New Haven: American Oriental Society, 1953." }, { "citation": "Schmitt, Rüdiger. *Wörterbuch der altpersischen Königsinschriften*. Wiesbaden: Reichert, 2014, s.v. *Mudrāya*." } ] }, { "id": "egypt-phoenician-msrm", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/egypt#phoenician-msrm", "civilization": "egypt", "language": "phoenician", "original_text": "𐤌𐤑𐤓𐤌", "transliteration": "Mṣrm", "ipa": "*misˤram", "literal_meaning": "Egypt (from the Semitic root mṣr)", "family": "msr", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -900, "era_end": -300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Krahmalkov, Charles R. *Phoenician-Punic Dictionary*. Leuven: Peeters, 2000, s.v. *mṣrm*." }, { "citation": "Hoftijzer, J., and K. Jongeling. *Dictionary of the North-West Semitic Inscriptions*. Leiden: Brill, 1995, s.v. *mṣr*." } ] }, { "id": "egypt-syriac-mesren", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/egypt#syriac-mesren", "civilization": "egypt", "language": "syriac", "original_text": "ܡܨܪܝܢ", "transliteration": "Meṣrēn", "ipa": "/mɛsˤˈreːn/", "literal_meaning": "Egypt (from the Semitic root mṣr)", "family": "msr", "derived_from": "egypt-imperial-aramaic-msryn", "era_start": 150, "era_end": 800, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Payne Smith, Jessie. *A Compendious Syriac Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1903, s.v. ܡܨܪܝܢ." }, { "citation": "Payne Smith, R. *Thesaurus Syriacus*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879–1901, s.v. ܡܨܪܝܢ." }, { "citation": "Peshitta, Genesis 12:10; Matthew 2:13." } ] }, { "id": "egypt-ugaritic-msrm", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/egypt#ugaritic-msrm", "civilization": "egypt", "language": "ugaritic", "original_text": "𐎎𐎕𐎗𐎎", "transliteration": "Mṣrm", "ipa": "*misˤrama", "literal_meaning": "Egypt (from the Semitic root mṣr)", "family": "msr", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1400, "era_end": -1190, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "del Olmo Lete, Gregorio, and Joaquín Sanmartín. *A Dictionary of the Ugaritic Language in the Alphabetic Tradition*. 3rd ed. Leiden: Brill, 2015, s.v. *mṣrm*." }, { "citation": "Halayqa, Issam K. H. *A Comparative Lexicon of Ugaritic and Canaanite*. Münster: Ugarit-Verlag, 2008." } ] }, { "id": "elam-akkadian-elamtu", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/elam#akkadian-elamtu", "civilization": "elam", "language": "akkadian", "original_text": "𒉏𒈠𒆠", "transliteration": "Elamtu", "ipa": "/eˈlamtu/", "literal_meaning": "Elam (the highland country)", "family": "elam", "derived_from": "elam-sumerian-elam", "era_start": -2350, "era_end": -540, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Chicago Assyrian Dictionary* (CAD), University of Chicago, Vol. E, s.v. *elamtu*, *elamû*." }, { "citation": "Stolper, Matthew W. \"Elam.\" In *Reallexikon der Assyriologie*, vol. 5." } ] }, { "id": "elam-ancient-greek-elymais", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/elam#ancient-greek-elymais", "civilization": "elam", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Ἐλυμαΐς", "transliteration": "Elymaís", "ipa": "/e.ly.maˈis/", "literal_meaning": "Elymais (Elam)", "family": "elam", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -300, "era_end": 200, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. *Ἐλυμαΐς*, *Σουσιανή*." }, { "citation": "1 Maccabees 6:1." }, { "citation": "Strabo, *Geography* 16.1; Polybius, *Histories* 31.9." } ] }, { "id": "elam-biblical-hebrew-elam", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/elam#biblical-hebrew-elam", "civilization": "elam", "language": "biblical-hebrew", "original_text": "עֵילָם", "transliteration": "ʿÊlām", "ipa": "/ʕeːˈlaːm/", "literal_meaning": "Elam", "family": "elam", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -900, "era_end": -100, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament* (HALOT), Leiden: Brill, 1994–2000, s.v. *ʿêlām*." }, { "citation": "Genesis 10:22, 14:1." }, { "citation": "Jeremiah 49:34–39; Isaiah 21:2; Ezra 4:9." } ] }, { "id": "elam-classical-arabic-ahwaz", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/elam#classical-arabic-ahwaz", "civilization": "elam", "language": "classical-arabic", "original_text": "الأهواز", "transliteration": "al-Ahwāz", "ipa": "/alʔahˈwaːz/", "literal_meaning": "the lands of the Hūz (Khuzistan; from the Iranian Hūz)", "family": "uvja", "derived_from": null, "era_start": 650, "era_end": 1300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Yāqūt al-Ḥamawī. *Muʿjam al-Buldān*, s.v. الأهواز, خوزستان." }, { "citation": "*The Encyclopaedia of Islam*. 2nd ed. Leiden: Brill, 1960–2005, s.v. *al-Ahwāz*, *Ḵhūzistān*." } ] }, { "id": "elam-elamite-haltamti", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/elam#elamite-haltamti", "civilization": "elam", "language": "elamite", "original_text": "𒁹𒄬𒆷𒁶𒋾", "transliteration": "Haltamti", "ipa": "*haltamti", "literal_meaning": "the lord country", "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": -2400, "era_end": -540, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Potts, D. T. *The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State*. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016." }, { "citation": "Hinz, Walther, and Heidemarie Koch. *Elamisches Wörterbuch*. 2 vols. Berlin: Dietrich Reimer, 1987, s.v. *Haltamti*." }, { "citation": "Stolper, Matthew W. \"Elam.\" In *Reallexikon der Assyriologie*, vol. 5." } ] }, { "id": "elam-geez-elam", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/elam#geez-elam", "civilization": "elam", "language": "geez", "original_text": "ኤላም", "transliteration": "Elam", "ipa": "/ʔeːˈlam/", "literal_meaning": "Elam", "family": "elam", "derived_from": null, "era_start": 350, "era_end": 700, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Genesis 10:22 (Ethiopic Old Testament)." }, { "citation": "Dillmann, August. *Lexicon Linguae Aethiopicae*. Leipzig: Weigel, 1865." } ] }, { "id": "elam-imperial-aramaic-elam", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/elam#imperial-aramaic-elam", "civilization": "elam", "language": "imperial-aramaic", "original_text": "עילם", "transliteration": "ʿylm", "ipa": "*ʕeːˈlaːm", "literal_meaning": "Elam (Aramaic administrative and biblical usage)", "family": "elam", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -500, "era_end": -200, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Hoftijzer, J., and K. Jongeling. *Dictionary of the North-West Semitic Inscriptions*. Leiden: Brill, 1995, s.v. *ʿylm*." }, { "citation": "Ezra 4:9 (Aramaic)." } ] }, { "id": "elam-latin-elymais", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/elam#latin-elymais", "civilization": "elam", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Elymais", "transliteration": "Elymais", "ipa": "/eˈly.ma.is/", "literal_meaning": "Elymais (Elam; toponym, from Greek)", "family": "elam", "derived_from": "elam-ancient-greek-elymais", "era_start": -50, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Elymais*, *Susiana*." }, { "citation": "Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 6.111, 6.135." } ] }, { "id": "elam-middle-persian-huzestan", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/elam#middle-persian-huzestan", "civilization": "elam", "language": "middle-persian", "original_text": "𐭤𐭥𐭦𐭮𐭲𐭠𐭭", "transliteration": "Hūzestān", "ipa": "*huːzesˈtaːn", "literal_meaning": "the land of the Hūz (Susiana; from Old Persian Ūvja)", "family": "uvja", "derived_from": "elam-old-persian-uvja", "era_start": 224, "era_end": 650, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "MacKenzie, D. N. *A Concise Pahlavi Dictionary*. London: Oxford University Press, 1971, s.v. *Hūzestān*, *Hūz*." }, { "citation": "*Encyclopaedia Iranica*, s.v. *Ḵuzestān*." } ] }, { "id": "elam-old-persian-uvja", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/elam#old-persian-uvja", "civilization": "elam", "language": "old-persian", "original_text": "𐎢𐎺𐎩", "transliteration": "Ūvja", "ipa": "/ˈuːv.ja/", "literal_meaning": "Elam; Susiana (the Achaemenid satrapy)", "family": "uvja", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -520, "era_end": -330, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Kent, Roland G. *Old Persian: Grammar, Texts, Lexicon*. 2nd ed. New Haven: American Oriental Society, 1953, s.v. *Ūvja-*." }, { "citation": "Behistun inscription (DB), Old Persian version (the revolt of Elam under Āçina and Martiya)." } ] }, { "id": "elam-sumerian-elam", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/elam#sumerian-elam", "civilization": "elam", "language": "sumerian", "original_text": "𒉏𒈠𒆠", "transliteration": "Elam", "ipa": null, "literal_meaning": "the high country (Sumerian elam, \"high\")", "family": "elam", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -2700, "era_end": -1700, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*The Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary* (ePSD2), s.v. *elam* (place name); *NIM*." }, { "citation": "Stolper, Matthew W. \"Elam.\" In *Reallexikon der Assyriologie*, vol. 5." } ] }, { "id": "elam-syriac-elam", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/elam#syriac-elam", "civilization": "elam", "language": "syriac", "original_text": "ܥܝܠܡ", "transliteration": "ʿĒlām", "ipa": "/ʕeːˈlɔm/", "literal_meaning": "Elam", "family": "elam", "derived_from": "elam-imperial-aramaic-elam", "era_start": 150, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Payne Smith, R. *Thesaurus Syriacus*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879–1901, s.v. ܥܝܠܡ." }, { "citation": "Peshitta, Genesis 10:22; Genesis 14:1; Daniel 8:2." } ] }, { "id": "ephesus-ancient-greek-ephesos", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/ephesus#ancient-greek-ephesos", "civilization": "ephesus", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Ἔφεσος", "transliteration": "Éphesos", "ipa": "/ˈe.pʰe.sos/", "literal_meaning": "Ephesus", "family": "ephesos", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1000, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Strabo, *Geography* 14.1.20–24 (the city, the harbor, the Artemision); Acts 19 (Paul at Ephesus)." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. Ἔφεσος." } ] }, { "id": "ephesus-classical-arabic-afsus", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/ephesus#classical-arabic-afsus", "civilization": "ephesus", "language": "classical-arabic", "original_text": "أفسوس", "transliteration": "Afsūs", "ipa": "/ʔafˈsuːs/", "literal_meaning": "Ephesus", "family": "ephesos", "derived_from": "ephesus-ancient-greek-ephesos", "era_start": 800, "era_end": 1400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Yāqūt al-Ḥamawī, *Muʿjam al-Buldān*, s.v. أفسوس; the Seven Sleepers (Aṣḥāb al-Kahf) tradition." } ] }, { "id": "ephesus-hittite-apasa", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/ephesus#hittite-apasa", "civilization": "ephesus", "language": "hittite", "original_text": "𒌷𒀀𒉺𒊭", "transliteration": "Apaša", "ipa": "*ˈapaʃa", "literal_meaning": "Apaša (the Arzawan capital, identified with Ephesus)", "family": "ephesos", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1400, "era_end": -1200, "confidence": "disputed", "sources": [ { "citation": "Hawkins, J. D. \"Tarkasnawa King of Mira.\" *Anatolian Studies* 48 (1998); the Hittite Arzawa texts (the campaigns of Muršili II against Uḫḫa-ziti)." }, { "citation": "Bryce, Trevor. *The Kingdom of the Hittites*. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005." } ] }, { "id": "ephesus-latin-ephesus", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/ephesus#latin-ephesus", "civilization": "ephesus", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Ephesus", "transliteration": "Ephesus", "ipa": "/ˈe.pʰe.sus/", "literal_meaning": "Ephesus", "family": "ephesos", "derived_from": "ephesus-ancient-greek-ephesos", "era_start": -200, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 5.31.115; Cicero, *Pro Flacco*; Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Ephesus*." } ] }, { "id": "ephesus-syriac-efesos", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/ephesus#syriac-efesos", "civilization": "ephesus", "language": "syriac", "original_text": "ܐܦܣܘܣ", "transliteration": "Efesos", "ipa": "/ʔe.feˈsos/", "literal_meaning": "Ephesus", "family": "ephesos", "derived_from": "ephesus-ancient-greek-ephesos", "era_start": 50, "era_end": 700, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Peshitta, Acts 19 and the Epistle to the Ephesians (ܐܦܣܝܐ, the Ephesians); the Council of Ephesus, 431 CE." }, { "citation": "Payne Smith, R. *Thesaurus Syriacus*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879–1901, s.v. ܐܦܣܘܣ." } ] }, { "id": "etruscans-ancient-greek-tyrrhenoi", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/etruscans#ancient-greek-tyrrhenoi", "civilization": "etruscans", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Τυρρηνοί", "transliteration": "Tyrrhēnoí", "ipa": "/tyr.rɛːˈnoi/", "literal_meaning": "the Tyrrhenians (the Etruscans)", "family": "tyrsenoi", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -700, "era_end": 300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Herodotus, *Histories* 1.94 (the story of Lydian emigration under Tyrrhenos)." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. Τυρσηνοί, Τυρρηνία." } ] }, { "id": "etruscans-biblical-hebrew-tiras", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/etruscans#biblical-hebrew-tiras", "civilization": "etruscans", "language": "biblical-hebrew", "original_text": "תירס", "transliteration": "Tiras", "ipa": "/tiˈras/", "literal_meaning": "Tiras (a son of Japheth, disputed)", "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": -900, "era_end": -400, "confidence": "disputed", "sources": [ { "citation": "Genesis 10:2; 1 Chronicles 1:5 (Tiras among the sons of Japheth)." }, { "citation": "Josephus, *Antiquities of the Jews* 1.123–124 (Tiras and the Thirasians)." } ] }, { "id": "etruscans-etruscan-rasna", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/etruscans#etruscan-rasna", "civilization": "etruscans", "language": "etruscan", "original_text": "𐌓𐌀𐌑𐌍𐌀", "transliteration": "Raśna", "ipa": "/ˈraʃna/", "literal_meaning": "the Etruscans (their self-name)", "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": -700, "era_end": 50, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Bonfante, Giuliano, and Larissa Bonfante. *The Etruscan Language: An Introduction*. Rev. ed. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2002, s.v. *raśna*." }, { "citation": "Dionysius of Halicarnassus, *Roman Antiquities* 1.30 (the Greek transcription *Rasénna*); Pallottino, Massimo. *The Etruscans*. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1975." } ] }, { "id": "etruscans-latin-etrusci", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/etruscans#latin-etrusci", "civilization": "etruscans", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Etruscī", "transliteration": "Etruscī", "ipa": "/eˈtruːs.kiː/", "literal_meaning": "the Etruscans", "family": "tyrsenoi", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -500, "era_end": 500, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Livy, *Ab Urbe Condita* 1.2, 5.33; Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Etrusci*, *Tusci*, *Etruria*." } ] }, { "id": "euphrates-akkadian-purattu", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/euphrates#akkadian-purattu", "civilization": "euphrates", "language": "akkadian", "original_text": "𒌓𒄒𒉣", "transliteration": "Purattu", "ipa": "/puˈrattu/", "literal_meaning": "the Euphrates", "family": "purattu", "derived_from": "euphrates-sumerian-buranun", "era_start": -2300, "era_end": -100, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Chicago Assyrian Dictionary* (CAD), University of Chicago, Vol. P, s.v. *Purattu*." }, { "citation": "Edzard, Dietz Otto. *Reallexikon der Assyriologie*, s.v. *Euphrat*." } ] }, { "id": "euphrates-ancient-greek-euphrates", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/euphrates#ancient-greek-euphrates", "civilization": "euphrates", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Εὐφράτης", "transliteration": "Euphrátēs", "ipa": "/eu̯.pʰraˈtɛːs/", "literal_meaning": "the Euphrates (heard as eu-, \"good,\" + phrázō, \"declare\")", "family": "euphrates", "derived_from": "euphrates-old-persian-ufratu", "era_start": -500, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Herodotus, *Histories* 1.180, 1.185–186." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. *Εὐφράτης*." } ] }, { "id": "euphrates-biblical-hebrew-perat", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/euphrates#biblical-hebrew-perat", "civilization": "euphrates", "language": "biblical-hebrew", "original_text": "פְּרָת", "transliteration": "Pĕrāt", "ipa": "/pəˈraːt/", "literal_meaning": "the Euphrates", "family": "purattu", "derived_from": "euphrates-akkadian-purattu", "era_start": -900, "era_end": -200, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Genesis 2:14 (the fourth river of Eden); Genesis 15:18 (\"the great river, the river Pĕrāt\"); Deuteronomy 1:7; Jeremiah 13:4–7." }, { "citation": "*Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament* (HALOT), Leiden: Brill, 1994–2000, s.v. *pĕrāt*." } ] }, { "id": "euphrates-classical-arabic-furat", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/euphrates#classical-arabic-furat", "civilization": "euphrates", "language": "classical-arabic", "original_text": "الفرات", "transliteration": "al-Furāt", "ipa": "/alfuˈraːt/", "literal_meaning": "the Euphrates (al-furāt also means \"sweet water\")", "family": "purattu", "derived_from": "euphrates-imperial-aramaic-perat", "era_start": 600, "era_end": 1300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Qurʾān, *Sūrat al-Furqān* (25):53; *Sūrat Fāṭir* (35):12 (furāt, \"sweet water\")." }, { "citation": "Yāqūt al-Ḥamawī. *Muʿjam al-Buldān*, s.v. الفرات." } ] }, { "id": "euphrates-elamite-uipratuis", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/euphrates#elamite-uipratuis", "civilization": "euphrates", "language": "elamite", "original_text": "𒌑𒅁𒊏𒌅𒅖", "transliteration": "Úipratuiš", "ipa": "*uipratuiʃ", "literal_meaning": "the Euphrates (Elamite rendering of Akkadian Purattu)", "family": "euphrates", "derived_from": "euphrates-akkadian-purattu", "era_start": -520, "era_end": -330, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Hinz, Walther, and Heidemarie Koch. *Elamisches Wörterbuch*. Berlin: Dietrich Reimer, 1987." }, { "citation": "Behistun inscription (DB), Elamite version." } ] }, { "id": "euphrates-geez-ifratis", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/euphrates#geez-ifratis", "civilization": "euphrates", "language": "geez", "original_text": "ኤፍራጥስ", "transliteration": "Ifrāṭis", "ipa": "/ʔifraːˈtˤis/", "literal_meaning": "the Euphrates", "family": "euphrates", "derived_from": "euphrates-ancient-greek-euphrates", "era_start": 350, "era_end": 700, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Ethiopic Old Testament, Genesis 2:14, 15:18." }, { "citation": "Dillmann, August. *Lexicon Linguae Aethiopicae*. Leipzig: Weigel, 1865." } ] }, { "id": "euphrates-imperial-aramaic-perat", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/euphrates#imperial-aramaic-perat", "civilization": "euphrates", "language": "imperial-aramaic", "original_text": "פרת", "transliteration": "Pĕrāt", "ipa": "*pəˈraːt", "literal_meaning": "the Euphrates", "family": "purattu", "derived_from": "euphrates-akkadian-purattu", "era_start": -700, "era_end": -200, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Hoftijzer, J., and K. Jongeling. *Dictionary of the North-West Semitic Inscriptions*. Leiden: Brill, 1995, s.v. *prt*." }, { "citation": "Aramaic usage continued in the Hebrew Pĕrāt and Syriac Pĕrāt." } ] }, { "id": "euphrates-latin-euphrates", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/euphrates#latin-euphrates", "civilization": "euphrates", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Euphrātēs", "transliteration": "Euphrātēs", "ipa": "/eu̯.pʰraːˈteːs/", "literal_meaning": "the Euphrates", "family": "euphrates", "derived_from": "euphrates-ancient-greek-euphrates", "era_start": -50, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 5.83–90." }, { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Euphrates*." } ] }, { "id": "euphrates-old-persian-ufratu", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/euphrates#old-persian-ufratu", "civilization": "euphrates", "language": "old-persian", "original_text": "𐎢𐎳𐎼𐎠𐎬𐎢", "transliteration": "Ufrātu", "ipa": "/ufˈraːtu/", "literal_meaning": "the Euphrates (possibly reanalyzed as \"good ford\")", "family": "euphrates", "derived_from": "euphrates-elamite-uipratuis", "era_start": -520, "era_end": -330, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Kent, Roland G. *Old Persian: Grammar, Texts, Lexicon*. 2nd ed. New Haven: American Oriental Society, 1953, s.v. *Ufrātu*." }, { "citation": "Schmitt, Rüdiger. *Wörterbuch der altpersischen Königsinschriften*. Wiesbaden: Reichert, 2014." } ] }, { "id": "euphrates-sumerian-buranun", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/euphrates#sumerian-buranun", "civilization": "euphrates", "language": "sumerian", "original_text": "𒌓𒄒𒉣", "transliteration": "Buranun", "ipa": "*buranun", "literal_meaning": "the Euphrates (origin uncertain)", "family": "purattu", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -3000, "era_end": -1600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*The Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary* (ePSD2), s.v. *Buranun* (river name)." }, { "citation": "Edzard, Dietz Otto. *Reallexikon der Assyriologie*, s.v. *Euphrat*." } ] }, { "id": "euphrates-syriac-perat", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/euphrates#syriac-perat", "civilization": "euphrates", "language": "syriac", "original_text": "ܦܪܬ", "transliteration": "Pĕrāt", "ipa": "/ˈpraːθ/", "literal_meaning": "the Euphrates", "family": "purattu", "derived_from": "euphrates-imperial-aramaic-perat", "era_start": 150, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Peshitta, Genesis 2:14, 15:18; Deuteronomy 1:7 (ܦܪܬ)." }, { "citation": "Payne Smith, R. *Thesaurus Syriacus*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879–1901, s.v. ܦܪܬ." } ] }, { "id": "gandhara-ancient-greek-gandarioi", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/gandhara#ancient-greek-gandarioi", "civilization": "gandhara", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Γανδάριοι", "transliteration": "Gandárioi", "ipa": "/ɡan.ˈda.ri.oi̯/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "gandhara", "derived_from": "gandhara-old-persian-gandara", "era_start": -450, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Herodotus, *Historiae* 3.91, 7.66 (the Gandarians in the satrapy and the army of Xerxes)." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. Γανδάριοι." } ] }, { "id": "gandhara-classical-chinese-jiantuoluo", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/gandhara#classical-chinese-jiantuoluo", "civilization": "gandhara", "language": "classical-chinese", "original_text": "健馱邏", "transliteration": "Jiàntuóluó", "ipa": null, "literal_meaning": null, "family": "gandhara", "derived_from": "gandhara-sanskrit-gandhara", "era_start": 400, "era_end": 800, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Xuanzang, *Dà Táng Xīyù Jì* (Great Tang Records on the Western Regions), 646 CE." }, { "citation": "Faxian, *Fóguó Jì* (Record of Buddhist Kingdoms), early 5th c." } ] }, { "id": "gandhara-latin-gandaris", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/gandhara#latin-gandaris", "civilization": "gandhara", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Gandaris", "transliteration": "Gandaris", "ipa": "/ˈɡan.da.ris/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "gandhara", "derived_from": "gandhara-ancient-greek-gandarioi", "era_start": -50, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 6.23.94; Quintus Curtius Rufus, *Historiae Alexandri* 8.12." }, { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Gandaris*." } ] }, { "id": "gandhara-old-persian-gandara", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/gandhara#old-persian-gandara", "civilization": "gandhara", "language": "old-persian", "original_text": "𐎥𐎭𐎠𐎼", "transliteration": "Gandāra", "ipa": "*ɡan.ˈdaː.ra", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "gandhara", "derived_from": "gandhara-sanskrit-gandhara", "era_start": -520, "era_end": -330, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Darius I, Behistun inscription (DB) §6; the Daiva inscription and DNa (the satrapy *Gandāra*)." }, { "citation": "Kent, Roland G. *Old Persian: Grammar, Texts, Lexicon*. 2nd ed. New Haven: American Oriental Society, 1953, s.v. *Gandāra-*." } ] }, { "id": "gandhara-sanskrit-gandhara", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/gandhara#sanskrit-gandhara", "civilization": "gandhara", "language": "sanskrit", "original_text": "गन्धार", "transliteration": "Gandhāra", "ipa": "/ɡɐnˈdʱaː.rɐ/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "gandhara", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1200, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Ṛgveda* 1.126.7 (the wool of the *Gandhāri*); *Mahābhārata* (Gāndhārī and her brother Śakuni of Gandhāra)." }, { "citation": "Monier-Williams, Monier. *A Sanskrit-English Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1899, s.v. *Gandhāra*." } ] }, { "id": "ganges-ancient-greek-ganges", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/ganges#ancient-greek-ganges", "civilization": "ganges", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Γάγγης", "transliteration": "Gángēs", "ipa": "/ˈɡaŋ.ɡɛːs/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "ganga", "derived_from": "ganges-sanskrit-ganga", "era_start": -300, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Megasthenes, *Indiká*, preserved in Arrian, *Indica* 4, and Strabo, *Geographica* 15.1." }, { "citation": "Ptolemy, *Geography* 7.1 (the Ganges and its mouths)." } ] }, { "id": "ganges-biblical-hebrew-pishon", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/ganges#biblical-hebrew-pishon", "civilization": "ganges", "language": "biblical-hebrew", "original_text": "פִּישׁוֹן", "transliteration": "Pîšôn", "ipa": "/piːˈʃoːn/", "literal_meaning": "the Pishon, a river of Eden", "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": -500, "era_end": 100, "confidence": "disputed", "sources": [ { "citation": "Genesis 2:11 (the Pishon, first of the four rivers of Eden, encircling Havilah)." }, { "citation": "Josephus, *Antiquitates Judaicae* 1.1.3 (1.38–39), identifying the Pishon with the Ganges." } ] }, { "id": "ganges-classical-chinese-henghe", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/ganges#classical-chinese-henghe", "civilization": "ganges", "language": "classical-chinese", "original_text": "恒河", "transliteration": "Héng hé", "ipa": null, "literal_meaning": "the Ganges (the Gaṅgā river)", "family": "ganga", "derived_from": "ganges-sanskrit-ganga", "era_start": 400, "era_end": 650, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Xuanzang, *Da Tang Xiyu Ji* 大唐西域記 (646 CE), on the 恒河." }, { "citation": "Buddhist sūtra translations, the metaphor 恒河沙 (\"sands of the Ganges\"): *Vajracchedikā* (Diamond Sūtra), *Saddharmapuṇḍarīka* (Lotus Sūtra)." } ] }, { "id": "ganges-latin-ganges", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/ganges#latin-ganges", "civilization": "ganges", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Ganges", "transliteration": "Ganges", "ipa": "/ˈɡan.ɡeːs/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "ganga", "derived_from": "ganges-ancient-greek-ganges", "era_start": -50, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 6.65 (the Ganges and its mouths)." }, { "citation": "Virgil, *Aeneid* 9.30–32; Curtius Rufus, *Historiae Alexandri Magni* 9.2 (the army's refusal to march to the Ganges)." } ] }, { "id": "ganges-sanskrit-ganga", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/ganges#sanskrit-ganga", "civilization": "ganges", "language": "sanskrit", "original_text": "गङ्गा", "transliteration": "Gaṅgā", "ipa": "/ˈɡəŋ.ɡaː/", "literal_meaning": "the Ganges; the river-goddess Gaṅgā", "family": "ganga", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1500, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Ṛgveda* 10.75.5 (the Nadīstuti, which names the Gaṅgā at the head of its river-list)." }, { "citation": "Monier-Williams, Monier. *A Sanskrit-English Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1899, s.v. *gaṅgā*." }, { "citation": "*Rāmāyaṇa* 1.42–44 (the Gaṅgāvataraṇa, the descent of the Ganges)." } ] }, { "id": "greece-akkadian-yaman", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/greece#akkadian-yaman", "civilization": "greece", "language": "akkadian", "original_text": "𒅀𒀀𒈠𒈾", "transliteration": "Yāmān", "ipa": "/jaːˈmaːn/", "literal_meaning": "Ionia; the Greek-speaking world (as seen from the east)", "family": "ionian", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -720, "era_end": -540, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Chicago Assyrian Dictionary* (CAD), University of Chicago, Vol. Y, s.v. *Yamānu*, *Yamānāya*." }, { "citation": "Grayson, A. Kirk, and Jamie Novotny, eds. *The Royal Inscriptions of Sennacherib, King of Assyria*. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 2012–2014." } ] }, { "id": "greece-ancient-greek-hellas", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/greece#ancient-greek-hellas", "civilization": "greece", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Ἑλλάς", "transliteration": "Hellás", "ipa": "/hel.lás/", "literal_meaning": "Hellas (toponym)", "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": -800, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Homer, *Iliad* 2.683–684." }, { "citation": "Thucydides, *History of the Peloponnesian War* 1.3." }, { "citation": "Beekes, Robert. *Etymological Dictionary of Greek*. Leiden: Brill, 2010, s.v. *Hellás*." } ] }, { "id": "greece-biblical-hebrew-yawan", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/greece#biblical-hebrew-yawan", "civilization": "greece", "language": "biblical-hebrew", "original_text": "יָוָן", "transliteration": "Yāwān", "ipa": "/jɔːˈwɔn/", "literal_meaning": "Ionian; Greek", "family": "ionian", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -800, "era_end": -100, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament* (HALOT), Leiden: Brill, 1994–2000, s.v. *yāwān*." }, { "citation": "Genesis 10:2, 10:4." }, { "citation": "Daniel 8:21, 10:20, 11:2." } ] }, { "id": "greece-classical-arabic-yunan", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/greece#classical-arabic-yunan", "civilization": "greece", "language": "classical-arabic", "original_text": "اليونان", "transliteration": "al-Yūnān", "ipa": "/alˈjuːnaːn/", "literal_meaning": "the Ionians; Greece", "family": "ionian", "derived_from": null, "era_start": 600, "era_end": 1300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Lane, Edward William. *An Arabic-English Lexicon*. London: Williams and Norgate, 1863–1893, s.v. يونان." }, { "citation": "Qur'an, *Sūrat al-Rūm* (30) (on the parallel form *al-Rūm*)." } ] }, { "id": "greece-coptic-uweinin", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/greece#coptic-uweinin", "civilization": "greece", "language": "coptic", "original_text": "ⲟⲩⲉⲓⲉⲛⲓⲛ", "transliteration": "Uweinin", "ipa": "/uˈweː.nin/", "literal_meaning": "Greek; an Ionian", "family": "ionian", "derived_from": "greece-demotic-wynn", "era_start": 200, "era_end": 1300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Crum, W. E. *A Coptic Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1939, s.v. ⲟⲩⲉⲓⲉⲛⲓⲛ." }, { "citation": "Vycichl, Werner. *Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue copte*. Peeters, 1983, s.v. ⲟⲩⲉⲓⲉⲛⲓⲛ." } ] }, { "id": "greece-demotic-wynn", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/greece#demotic-wynn", "civilization": "greece", "language": "demotic", "original_text": "", "transliteration": "Wynn", "ipa": null, "literal_meaning": "Greek; an Ionian", "family": "ionian", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -330, "era_end": 200, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Erichsen, Wolja. *Demotisches Glossar*. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard, 1954, s.v. *wynn*." }, { "citation": "*Chicago Demotic Dictionary*. Oriental Institute, University of Chicago, s.v. *wynn*.", "url": "https://oi.uchicago.edu/research/chicago-demotic-dictionary-cdd" }, { "citation": "Rosetta Stone (Memphis decree of Ptolemy V), Demotic text, 196 BCE." } ] }, { "id": "greece-egyptian-hau-nebut", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/greece#egyptian-hau-nebut", "civilization": "greece", "language": "egyptian", "original_text": "𓎛𓄿𓅱𓋔𓍔𓏏𓏤", "transliteration": "Ḥꜣw-nbwt", "ipa": "*ħaːw naˈbuːwat", "literal_meaning": "those of the islands; the island-peoples", "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": -2000, "era_end": -300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Erman, Adolf, and Hermann Grapow. *Wörterbuch der ägyptischen Sprache*. 5 vols. Leipzig: J. C. Hinrichs, 1926–1953, s.v. *ḥꜣw-nbwt*." }, { "citation": "Vandersleyen, Claude. *Les guerres d'Amosis, fondateur de la XVIIIᵉ dynastie*. Brussels: Fondation Égyptologique Reine Élisabeth, 1971." } ] }, { "id": "greece-elamite-yauna", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/greece#elamite-yauna", "civilization": "greece", "language": "elamite", "original_text": "𒅀𒌑𒈾", "transliteration": "Yauna", "ipa": "*jauna", "literal_meaning": "Ionia; the Greek world (borrowed from Old Persian)", "family": "ionian", "derived_from": "greece-old-persian-yauna", "era_start": -520, "era_end": -330, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Hinz, Walther, and Heidemarie Koch. *Elamisches Wörterbuch*. 2 vols. Berlin: Dietrich Reimer, 1987, s.v. *Yauna*." }, { "citation": "Kent, Roland G. *Old Persian: Grammar, Texts, Lexicon*. 2nd ed. New Haven: American Oriental Society, 1953." } ] }, { "id": "greece-geez-yonan", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/greece#geez-yonan", "civilization": "greece", "language": "geez", "original_text": "ዮናን", "transliteration": "Yonan", "ipa": "/joˈnan/", "literal_meaning": "Greek; Ionian", "family": "ionian", "derived_from": null, "era_start": 350, "era_end": 1500, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Leslau, Wolf. *Comparative Dictionary of Geʿez (Classical Ethiopic)*. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1987, s.v. *yonan*." }, { "citation": "Uhlig, Siegbert, ed. *Encyclopaedia Aethiopica*. 5 vols. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2003–2014." } ] }, { "id": "greece-hittite-ahhiyawa", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/greece#hittite-ahhiyawa", "civilization": "greece", "language": "hittite", "original_text": "𒀀𒄭𒅀𒉿", "transliteration": "Aḫḫiyawa", "ipa": "*aχːijaˈwa", "literal_meaning": "the land of the Aḫḫiyans (cognate with Greek Akhaioí)", "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1400, "era_end": -1180, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Beckman, Gary M., Trevor R. Bryce, and Eric H. Cline. *The Ahhiyawa Texts*. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2011." }, { "citation": "Bryce, Trevor. *The Kingdom of the Hittites*. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005." } ] }, { "id": "greece-imperial-aramaic-ywn", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/greece#imperial-aramaic-ywn", "civilization": "greece", "language": "imperial-aramaic", "original_text": "יון", "transliteration": "Ywn", "ipa": "*jaːˈwaːn", "literal_meaning": "Ionia; the Greek world", "family": "ionian", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -500, "era_end": -200, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Porten, Bezalel, and Ada Yardeni. *Textbook of Aramaic Documents from Ancient Egypt* (TADAE). 4 vols. Jerusalem: Hebrew University, 1986–1999." }, { "citation": "Hoftijzer, J., and K. Jongeling. *Dictionary of the North-West Semitic Inscriptions*. Leiden: Brill, 1995, s.v. *ywn*." } ] }, { "id": "greece-latin-graecia", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/greece#latin-graecia", "civilization": "greece", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Graecia", "transliteration": "Graecia", "ipa": "/ˈɡrae̯.ki.a/", "literal_meaning": "land of the Graeci", "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": -300, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Ennius, *Annales* (fragments), 3rd c. BCE." }, { "citation": "Aristotle, *Meteorology* 1.14 (on the older name *Graikoí* for the Hellenes)." }, { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Graecia*, *Graecus*." } ] }, { "id": "greece-middle-persian-yunan", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/greece#middle-persian-yunan", "civilization": "greece", "language": "middle-persian", "original_text": "𐭩𐭥𐭭𐭠𐭭", "transliteration": "Yunān", "ipa": "/juˈnaːn/", "literal_meaning": "Greek; Ionian", "family": "ionian", "derived_from": "greece-old-persian-yauna", "era_start": 200, "era_end": 900, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "MacKenzie, D. N. *A Concise Pahlavi Dictionary*. London: Oxford University Press, 1971, s.v. *yunān*." }, { "citation": "Bailey, H. W. *Zoroastrian Problems in the Ninth-Century Books*. 2nd ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971." } ] }, { "id": "greece-old-persian-yauna", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/greece#old-persian-yauna", "civilization": "greece", "language": "old-persian", "original_text": "𐎹𐎢𐎴", "transliteration": "Yauna", "ipa": "/jau̯.na/", "literal_meaning": "Ionian", "family": "ionian", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -550, "era_end": -330, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Kent, Roland G. *Old Persian: Grammar, Texts, Lexicon*. 2nd ed. New Haven: American Oriental Society, 1953." }, { "citation": "Schmitt, Rüdiger. *Wörterbuch der altpersischen Königsinschriften*. Wiesbaden: Reichert, 2014, s.v. *Yauna*." } ] }, { "id": "greece-parthian-yonig", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/greece#parthian-yonig", "civilization": "greece", "language": "parthian", "original_text": "𐫏𐫇𐫗𐫏𐫃", "transliteration": "ywnyg", "ipa": "/joːniːɡ/", "literal_meaning": "Greek", "family": "ionian", "derived_from": null, "era_start": 250, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Durkin-Meisterernst, Desmond. *Dictionary of Manichaean Middle Persian and Parthian*. Corpus Fontium Manichaeorum, Subsidia. Turnhout: Brepols, 2004, s.v. *ywnyg*." }, { "citation": "Sundermann, Werner. *Mitteliranische manichäische Texte kirchengeschichtlichen Inhalts*. Berliner Turfantexte XI. Berlin: Akademie-Verlag, 1981." } ] }, { "id": "greece-phoenician-ywnm", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/greece#phoenician-ywnm", "civilization": "greece", "language": "phoenician", "original_text": "𐤉𐤅𐤍𐤌", "transliteration": "Ywnm", "ipa": "*jaːwˈniːm", "literal_meaning": "the Ionians (plural ethnonym)", "family": "ionian", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -800, "era_end": -300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Krahmalkov, Charles R. *Phoenician-Punic Dictionary*. Leuven: Peeters, 2000, s.v. *ywnm*." }, { "citation": "Hoftijzer, J., and K. Jongeling. *Dictionary of the North-West Semitic Inscriptions*. Leiden: Brill, 1995, s.v. *yawan*." } ] }, { "id": "greece-sanskrit-yavana", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/greece#sanskrit-yavana", "civilization": "greece", "language": "sanskrit", "original_text": "यवन", "transliteration": "Yavana", "ipa": "/ˈjɐʋɐnɐ/", "literal_meaning": "Greek; later broadened to Westerner", "family": "ionian", "derived_from": "greece-old-persian-yauna", "era_start": -400, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Pāṇini, *Aṣṭādhyāyī* 4.1.49." }, { "citation": "*Milinda Panha*, ed. V. Trenckner. London: Pali Text Society, 1880." }, { "citation": "Monier-Williams, Monier. *A Sanskrit-English Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1899, s.v. *yavana*." } ] }, { "id": "greece-syriac-yawan", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/greece#syriac-yawan", "civilization": "greece", "language": "syriac", "original_text": "ܝܘܢ", "transliteration": "Yāwān", "ipa": "/jaːˈwaːn/", "literal_meaning": "Greece; Javan", "family": "ionian", "derived_from": null, "era_start": 150, "era_end": 800, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Payne Smith, Jessie. *A Compendious Syriac Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1903, s.v. ܝܘܢ." }, { "citation": "Sokoloff, Michael. *A Syriac Lexicon: A Translation from the Latin, Correction, Expansion, and Update of C. Brockelmann's Lexicon Syriacum*. Winona Lake/Piscataway: Eisenbrauns/Gorgias, 2009, s.v. ܝܘܢܝܐ." }, { "citation": "Peshitta, Genesis 10:2; Zechariah 9:13; Daniel 8:21; John 19:20." } ] }, { "id": "halys-ancient-greek-halys", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/halys#ancient-greek-halys", "civilization": "halys", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Ἅλυς", "transliteration": "Hálys", "ipa": "/ˈha.lys/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "halys", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -550, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Herodotus, *Historiae* 1.6, 1.53, 1.72 (the Halys as Croesus's boundary and the Delphic oracle)." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. Ἅλυς." } ] }, { "id": "halys-hittite-marassantiya", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/halys#hittite-marassantiya", "civilization": "halys", "language": "hittite", "original_text": "𒈠𒊏𒀸𒊭𒀭𒋾𒄿𒀀", "transliteration": "Marassantiya", "ipa": "*ma.ra.ʃːanˈti.ja", "literal_meaning": null, "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1600, "era_end": -1190, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "del Monte, Giuseppe, and Johann Tischler. *Die Orts- und Gewässernamen der hethitischen Texte* (RGTC 6). Wiesbaden: Reichert, 1978, s.v. *Marassanta*." }, { "citation": "Hittite texts (the river of the homeland); Bryce, Trevor. *The Kingdom of the Hittites*. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005." } ] }, { "id": "halys-latin-halys", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/halys#latin-halys", "civilization": "halys", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Halys", "transliteration": "Halys", "ipa": "/ˈha.lys/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "halys", "derived_from": "halys-ancient-greek-halys", "era_start": -50, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 6.2.6–7; Lucan, *Pharsalia* 3.272." }, { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Halys*." } ] }, { "id": "hellespont-ancient-greek-hellespontos", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/hellespont#ancient-greek-hellespontos", "civilization": "hellespont", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Ἑλλήσποντος", "transliteration": "Hellḗspontos", "ipa": "/hel.ˈlɛːs.pon.tos/", "literal_meaning": "the sea of Helle", "family": "hellespontos", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -700, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Homer, *Iliad* 7.86, 17.432; Herodotus, *Historiae* 7.33–36 (Xerxes's bridge of boats)." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. Ἑλλήσποντος." } ] }, { "id": "hellespont-latin-hellespontus", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/hellespont#latin-hellespontus", "civilization": "hellespont", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Hellespontus", "transliteration": "Hellespontus", "ipa": "/hel.lesˈpon.tus/", "literal_meaning": "the sea of Helle", "family": "hellespontos", "derived_from": "hellespont-ancient-greek-hellespontos", "era_start": -50, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Ovid, *Heroides* 18–19 (Leander and Hero); Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 4.49." }, { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Hellespontus*." } ] }, { "id": "himalayas-ancient-greek-emodos", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/himalayas#ancient-greek-emodos", "civilization": "himalayas", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Ἠμωδός", "transliteration": "Ēmōdós", "ipa": "/ɛːmɔːˈdos/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "himalaya", "derived_from": null, "era_start": 100, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Ptolemy, *Geography* 7.2 (the Emodos range); Arrian, *Indica*." } ] }, { "id": "himalayas-ancient-greek-imaos", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/himalayas#ancient-greek-imaos", "civilization": "himalayas", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Ἴμαος", "transliteration": "Ímaos", "ipa": "/ˈi.ma.os/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "himalaya", "derived_from": null, "era_start": 100, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Ptolemy, *Geography* 6.13–15 (the Imaon range dividing Scythia within and beyond the Imaus)." }, { "citation": "Strabo, *Geographica* 15.1.11." } ] }, { "id": "himalayas-latin-emodus", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/himalayas#latin-emodus", "civilization": "himalayas", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Emodus", "transliteration": "Emodus", "ipa": "/ˈe.mo.dus/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "himalaya", "derived_from": "himalayas-ancient-greek-emodos", "era_start": -50, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 5.98 and 6.60–64 (the Emodi montes, the first portion of the Indian range)." } ] }, { "id": "himalayas-latin-imaus", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/himalayas#latin-imaus", "civilization": "himalayas", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Imaus", "transliteration": "Imaus", "ipa": "/ˈi.ma.us/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "himalaya", "derived_from": "himalayas-ancient-greek-imaos", "era_start": -50, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 6.60–64 (Imaus, glossed: *incolarum lingua nivosum significante*, \"meaning snowy in the inhabitants' language\")." } ] }, { "id": "himalayas-sanskrit-himalaya", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/himalayas#sanskrit-himalaya", "civilization": "himalayas", "language": "sanskrit", "original_text": "हिमालय", "transliteration": "Himālaya", "ipa": "/ɦiˈmaː.lɐ.jɐ/", "literal_meaning": "the abode of snow (himá, snow + ālaya, abode)", "family": "himalaya", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -500, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Kālidāsa, *Kumārasambhava* 1.1 (*himālayo nāma nagādhirājaḥ*, \"the Himālaya, king of mountains\")." }, { "citation": "Monier-Williams, Monier. *A Sanskrit-English Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1899, s.v. *himālaya*." } ] }, { "id": "himalayas-sanskrit-himavat", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/himalayas#sanskrit-himavat", "civilization": "himalayas", "language": "sanskrit", "original_text": "हिमवत्", "transliteration": "Himavat", "ipa": "/ˈɦi.mɐ.ʋɐt̪/", "literal_meaning": "the snowy one; the personified mountain, father of Gaṅgā and Pārvatī", "family": "himalaya", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1000, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Ṛgveda* 10.121.4 (*himavantaḥ*, the snowy mountains)." }, { "citation": "*Rāmāyaṇa* 1.35 (Himavat, lord of mountains, father of Gaṅgā and Umā); Monier-Williams, s.v. *himavat*." } ] }, { "id": "hindu-kush-ancient-greek-paropamisos", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/hindu-kush#ancient-greek-paropamisos", "civilization": "hindu-kush", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Παροπάμισος", "transliteration": "Paropámisos", "ipa": "/pa.ro.ˈpa.mi.sos/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "paropamisos", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -330, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Arrian, *Anabasis* 3.28, 5.3–5; Strabo, *Geographica* 15.1.11." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. Παροπάμισος." } ] }, { "id": "hindu-kush-classical-arabic-hindu-kush", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/hindu-kush#classical-arabic-hindu-kush", "civilization": "hindu-kush", "language": "classical-arabic", "original_text": "هندوكش", "transliteration": "Hindū Kush", "ipa": "/hin.duː ˈkuʃ/", "literal_meaning": "the Hindu-killer", "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": 1200, "era_end": 1400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Ibn Baṭṭūṭa, *Riḥla* (the etymology of *Hindū Kush*, c. 1330s)." }, { "citation": "Yāqūt al-Ḥamawī, *Muʿjam al-Buldān*. Beirut: Dār Ṣādir, 1977." } ] }, { "id": "hindu-kush-latin-paropamisus", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/hindu-kush#latin-paropamisus", "civilization": "hindu-kush", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Paropamisus", "transliteration": "Paropamisus", "ipa": "/pa.ro.ˈpa.mi.sus/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "paropamisos", "derived_from": "hindu-kush-ancient-greek-paropamisos", "era_start": -50, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 6.17.60–61; Quintus Curtius Rufus, *Historiae Alexandri* 7.3." }, { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Paropamisus*." } ] }, { "id": "hittites-akkadian-hatti", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/hittites#akkadian-hatti", "civilization": "hittites", "language": "akkadian", "original_text": "𒄩𒀜𒋾", "transliteration": "Ḫatti", "ipa": "/ˈxatti/", "literal_meaning": "Hatti (the land of the Hittites; later, Syria)", "family": "hatti", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1800, "era_end": -630, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Moran, William L. *The Amarna Letters*. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992." }, { "citation": "*Chicago Assyrian Dictionary* (CAD), University of Chicago, Vol. Ḫ, s.v. *Ḫatti*." }, { "citation": "Grayson, A. Kirk. *Assyrian Rulers of the Early First Millennium BC*. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1991–1996." } ] }, { "id": "hittites-ancient-greek-chettaios", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/hittites#ancient-greek-chettaios", "civilization": "hittites", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Χετταῖος", "transliteration": "Khettaîos", "ipa": "/kʰetˈtai.os/", "literal_meaning": "Hittite (descendant of Heth)", "family": "het", "derived_from": "hittites-biblical-hebrew-hitti", "era_start": -250, "era_end": 100, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940." }, { "citation": "Septuagint, Genesis 10:15, 23:3–20 (Χετταῖος)." } ] }, { "id": "hittites-biblical-hebrew-hitti", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/hittites#biblical-hebrew-hitti", "civilization": "hittites", "language": "biblical-hebrew", "original_text": "חִתִּי", "transliteration": "Ḥittî", "ipa": "/ħitˈtiː/", "literal_meaning": "Hittite; descendant of Heth (Ḥēt)", "family": "het", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -900, "era_end": -100, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament* (HALOT), Leiden: Brill, 1994–2000, s.v. *ḥittî*, *ḥēt*." }, { "citation": "Genesis 10:15, 23:3–20." }, { "citation": "Joshua 1:4; 1 Kings 10:29; Ezekiel 16:3." } ] }, { "id": "hittites-geez-keti", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/hittites#geez-keti", "civilization": "hittites", "language": "geez", "original_text": "ኬጢ", "transliteration": "Kēṭi", "ipa": "/keːˈtˤi/", "literal_meaning": "Heth (the Hittites)", "family": "het", "derived_from": "hittites-ancient-greek-chettaios", "era_start": 350, "era_end": 700, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Genesis 10:15 (Ethiopic Old Testament)." }, { "citation": "Dillmann, August. *Lexicon Linguae Aethiopicae*. Leipzig: Weigel, 1865." } ] }, { "id": "hittites-hittite-hatti", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/hittites#hittite-hatti", "civilization": "hittites", "language": "hittite", "original_text": "𒄩𒀜𒋾", "transliteration": "Ḫatti", "ipa": "*ˈxatti", "literal_meaning": "Hatti (the land; inherited from the Hattians)", "family": "hatti", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1650, "era_end": -1180, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Bryce, Trevor. *The Kingdom of the Hittites*. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005." }, { "citation": "Hoffner, Harry A., and H. Craig Melchert. *A Grammar of the Hittite Language*. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 2008." }, { "citation": "Beckman, Gary. *Hittite Diplomatic Texts*. 2nd ed. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1999." } ] }, { "id": "hittites-latin-hethaeus", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/hittites#latin-hethaeus", "civilization": "hittites", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Hethaeus", "transliteration": "Hethaeus", "ipa": "/heˈtʰae̯.us/", "literal_meaning": "Hittite (descendant of Heth)", "family": "het", "derived_from": "hittites-ancient-greek-chettaios", "era_start": 200, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Jerome, *Vulgata*, Genesis 10:15, 23:3–20 (Hethaeus)." }, { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879." } ] }, { "id": "india-akkadian-indu", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/india#akkadian-indu", "civilization": "india", "language": "akkadian", "original_text": "𒅔𒁺𒌑", "transliteration": "Indû", "ipa": "*induː", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "sindhu", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -518, "era_end": -330, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Darius I, Naqsh-e Rustam (DNa) and Xerxes, Daiva inscription (XPh), Babylonian versions: the land-list, KUR In-du-ú, with ultu KUR Indû \"from India.\"" }, { "citation": "*Chicago Assyrian Dictionary* (CAD), University of Chicago, s.v. *Indu*." } ] }, { "id": "india-ancient-greek-india", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/india#ancient-greek-india", "civilization": "india", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Ἰνδία", "transliteration": "Indía", "ipa": "/in.ˈdi.a/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "sindhu", "derived_from": "india-old-persian-hindus", "era_start": -440, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Herodotus, *Histories* 3.94, 3.98, 4.44 (the Indós and the Indoí, easternmost of mankind)." }, { "citation": "Megasthenes, *Indiká*, preserved in Arrian, *Indica*." } ] }, { "id": "india-avestan-hapta-hendu", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/india#avestan-hapta-hendu", "civilization": "india", "language": "avestan", "original_text": "𐬵𐬀𐬞𐬙𐬀 𐬵𐬈𐬢𐬛𐬎", "transliteration": "Hapta Həṇdu", "ipa": "*ˈhapta ˈhəɳdu", "literal_meaning": "the seven rivers", "family": "sindhu", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -900, "era_end": -400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Vendidad* (Vidēvdāt) 1.18, the last of the sixteen lands created by Ahura Mazda." }, { "citation": "Gnoli, Gherardo. *Encyclopaedia Iranica*, s.v. \"Hapta Həndu\" / \"Avestan Geography.\"" } ] }, { "id": "india-biblical-hebrew-hoddu", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/india#biblical-hebrew-hoddu", "civilization": "india", "language": "biblical-hebrew", "original_text": "הֹדּוּ", "transliteration": "Hōddû", "ipa": "/hodˈdu/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "sindhu", "derived_from": "india-old-persian-hindus", "era_start": -400, "era_end": -300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Esther 1:1, 8:9 (Masoretic Text): \"...who reigned from Hōddû to Kush.\"" }, { "citation": "Koehler, Ludwig, and Walter Baumgartner. *The Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament* (HALOT), s.v. הֹדּוּ." } ] }, { "id": "india-classical-arabic-hind", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/india#classical-arabic-hind", "civilization": "india", "language": "classical-arabic", "original_text": "الهند", "transliteration": "al-Hind", "ipa": "/alˈhind/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "sindhu", "derived_from": "india-middle-persian-hind", "era_start": 600, "era_end": 1100, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "al-Bīrūnī, *Taḥqīq mā li-l-Hind* (Kitāb al-Hind), c. 1030 CE." }, { "citation": "Yāqūt al-Ḥamawī. *Muʿjam al-Buldān*. Beirut: Dār Ṣādir, s.v. الهند (al-Hind), السند (al-Sind)." } ] }, { "id": "india-classical-chinese-shendu", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/india#classical-chinese-shendu", "civilization": "india", "language": "classical-chinese", "original_text": "身毒", "transliteration": "Shēndú", "ipa": null, "literal_meaning": null, "family": "sindhu", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -120, "era_end": 100, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Sima Qian, *Shiji* 123 (Dayuan liezhuan, the account of Ferghana and the western regions)." }, { "citation": "Pulleyblank, Edwin G. *Lexicon of Reconstructed Pronunciation in Early Middle Chinese, Late Middle Chinese, and Early Mandarin*. Vancouver: UBC Press, 1991." } ] }, { "id": "india-classical-chinese-tianzhu", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/india#classical-chinese-tianzhu", "civilization": "india", "language": "classical-chinese", "original_text": "天竺", "transliteration": "Tiānzhú", "ipa": null, "literal_meaning": null, "family": "sindhu", "derived_from": null, "era_start": 25, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Fan Ye, *Hou Hanshu* 88 (Xiyu zhuan, the account of the western regions)." }, { "citation": "Pulleyblank, Edwin G. *Lexicon of Reconstructed Pronunciation*. Vancouver: UBC Press, 1991." } ] }, { "id": "india-classical-chinese-yindu", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/india#classical-chinese-yindu", "civilization": "india", "language": "classical-chinese", "original_text": "印度", "transliteration": "Yìndù", "ipa": null, "literal_meaning": null, "family": "sindhu", "derived_from": null, "era_start": 600, "era_end": 900, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Xuanzang, *Da Tang Xiyu Ji* (Great Tang Records on the Western Regions) 2, 646 CE." }, { "citation": "Pulleyblank, Edwin G. *Lexicon of Reconstructed Pronunciation*. Vancouver: UBC Press, 1991." } ] }, { "id": "india-elamite-hindus", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/india#elamite-hindus", "civilization": "india", "language": "elamite", "original_text": "𒄭𒅔𒁺𒅖", "transliteration": "Hinduš", "ipa": "*hinduʃ", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "sindhu", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -518, "era_end": -330, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Darius I, Naqsh-e Rustam (DNa) and Xerxes, Daiva inscription (XPh), Elamite versions: the dahyāva list, h.hi-in-du-iš." }, { "citation": "Hinz, Walther, and Heidemarie Koch. *Elamisches Wörterbuch*. Berlin: Reimer, 1987, s.v. *Hinduš*." } ] }, { "id": "india-geez-hendeke", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/india#geez-hendeke", "civilization": "india", "language": "geez", "original_text": "ህንደኬ", "transliteration": "Hendekē", "ipa": "/hendeke/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "sindhu", "derived_from": "india-ancient-greek-india", "era_start": 350, "era_end": 700, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Esther 1:1 (Ethiopic Old Testament), rendering the Septuagint Ἰνδική." }, { "citation": "Dillmann, August. *Lexicon Linguae Aethiopicae*. Leipzig: Weigel, 1865, s.v. ህንደኬ." } ] }, { "id": "india-jewish-babylonian-aramaic-hindu", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/india#jewish-babylonian-aramaic-hindu", "civilization": "india", "language": "jewish-babylonian-aramaic", "original_text": "הינדו", "transliteration": "Hindū", "ipa": "/hinˈduː/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "sindhu", "derived_from": null, "era_start": 200, "era_end": 700, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Sokoloff, Michael. *A Dictionary of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic of the Talmudic and Geonic Periods*. Ramat-Gan: Bar Ilan University Press, 2002, s.v. הינדו." }, { "citation": "Babylonian Talmud, b. Qiddushin 22b and parallels (Indian goods and the eastern trade)." } ] }, { "id": "india-latin-india", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/india#latin-india", "civilization": "india", "language": "latin", "original_text": "India", "transliteration": "India", "ipa": "/ˈin.di.a/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "sindhu", "derived_from": "india-ancient-greek-india", "era_start": -50, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 6.21–23 (the geography and peoples of India)." }, { "citation": "Pomponius Mela, *De Chorographia* 3.61–70." } ] }, { "id": "india-middle-persian-hind", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/india#middle-persian-hind", "civilization": "india", "language": "middle-persian", "original_text": "𐭤𐭭𐭣", "transliteration": "Hind", "ipa": "/hind/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "sindhu", "derived_from": "india-old-persian-hindus", "era_start": 250, "era_end": 650, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Bundahišn* (Greater Bundahišn), the geographical chapters; *Šahrestānīhā ī Ērānšahr* (the provincial capitals of Hindūgān)." }, { "citation": "MacKenzie, David N. *A Concise Pahlavi Dictionary*. London: Oxford University Press, 1971, s.v. *hind*, *hindūg*." } ] }, { "id": "india-old-persian-hindus", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/india#old-persian-hindus", "civilization": "india", "language": "old-persian", "original_text": "𐏃𐎡𐎯𐎢𐏁", "transliteration": "Hinduš", "ipa": "*hinˈduʃ", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "sindhu", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -518, "era_end": -330, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Darius I, Behistun inscription (DB) I.16; Naqsh-e Rustam (DNa) §3, the dahyāva land-lists." }, { "citation": "Kent, Roland G. *Old Persian: Grammar, Texts, Lexicon*. New Haven: American Oriental Society, 1953, s.v. *Hi(n)duš*." }, { "citation": "Schmitt, Rüdiger. *Wörterbuch der altpersischen Königsinschriften*. Wiesbaden: Reichert, 2014, s.v. *Hindu-*." } ] }, { "id": "india-sanskrit-bharata", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/india#sanskrit-bharata", "civilization": "india", "language": "sanskrit", "original_text": "भारत", "transliteration": "Bhārata", "ipa": "/ˈbʱaː.rɐ.t̪ɐ/", "literal_meaning": "the land of the Bharatas", "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": -400, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Mahābhārata* 6.9–10 (Bhīṣmaparvan, the geography of Bhāratavarṣa)." }, { "citation": "*Viṣṇu Purāṇa* 2.3.1." }, { "citation": "Monier-Williams, Monier. *A Sanskrit-English Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1899, s.v. *bhārata*." } ] }, { "id": "india-syriac-hendu", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/india#syriac-hendu", "civilization": "india", "language": "syriac", "original_text": "ܗܢܕܘ", "transliteration": "Hendu", "ipa": "/ˈhen.du/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "sindhu", "derived_from": null, "era_start": 300, "era_end": 800, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Synodicon Orientale* (the acts of the synods of the Church of the East). Chabot, J.-B., ed. Paris, 1902." }, { "citation": "Cosmas Indicopleustes, *Christian Topography* 3 (the Persian Christians settled in India and on Socotra)." } ] }, { "id": "indus-ancient-greek-indos", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/indus#ancient-greek-indos", "civilization": "indus", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Ἰνδός", "transliteration": "Indós", "ipa": "/in.ˈdos/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "sindhu", "derived_from": "indus-old-persian-hindus", "era_start": -440, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Herodotus, *Histories* 4.44 (Scylax of Caryanda sailing down the Indós to the sea for Darius)." }, { "citation": "Arrian, *Indica* 2–4 and *Anabasis of Alexander* 5.3–6 (the crossing of the Indós and Nearchus's voyage)." } ] }, { "id": "indus-classical-arabic-mihran", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/indus#classical-arabic-mihran", "civilization": "indus", "language": "classical-arabic", "original_text": "مهران", "transliteration": "Mihrān", "ipa": "/mihˈraːn/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": 850, "era_end": 1300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "al-Bīrūnī, *Taḥqīq mā li-l-Hind* (Kitāb al-Hind), c. 1030 CE, on the Mihrān of Sind." }, { "citation": "al-Iṣṭakhrī, *Kitāb al-Masālik wa-l-Mamālik*, s.v. Mihrān; Ibn Ḥawqal, *Ṣūrat al-Arḍ*." } ] }, { "id": "indus-classical-arabic-nahr-al-sind", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/indus#classical-arabic-nahr-al-sind", "civilization": "indus", "language": "classical-arabic", "original_text": "نهر السند", "transliteration": "Nahr al-Sind", "ipa": "/nahr asˈsind/", "literal_meaning": "the river of Sind", "family": "sindhu", "derived_from": null, "era_start": 850, "era_end": 1300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Yāqūt al-Ḥamawī. *Muʿjam al-Buldān*. Beirut: Dār Ṣādir, s.v. السند (al-Sind)." } ] }, { "id": "indus-classical-chinese-xindu-he", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/indus#classical-chinese-xindu-he", "civilization": "indus", "language": "classical-chinese", "original_text": "信度河", "transliteration": "Xìndù hé", "ipa": null, "literal_meaning": "the Sindhu river", "family": "sindhu", "derived_from": "indus-sanskrit-sindhu", "era_start": 400, "era_end": 650, "confidence": "disputed", "sources": [ { "citation": "Xuanzang, *Da Tang Xiyu Ji* 大唐西域記 (Great Tang Records on the Western Regions) 2, 646 CE, the 信度河." }, { "citation": "Faxian, *Foguo ji* 佛國記 (Record of Buddhist Kingdoms), the 辛頭河 (Xīntóu hé)." } ] }, { "id": "indus-latin-indus", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/indus#latin-indus", "civilization": "indus", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Indus", "transliteration": "Indus", "ipa": "/ˈin.dus/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "sindhu", "derived_from": "indus-ancient-greek-indos", "era_start": -50, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 6.71 (the Indus as the western boundary of India)." }, { "citation": "Curtius Rufus, *Historiae Alexandri Magni* 8.9, 9.1 (Alexander at the Indus)." } ] }, { "id": "indus-old-persian-hindus", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/indus#old-persian-hindus", "civilization": "indus", "language": "old-persian", "original_text": "𐏃𐎡𐎯𐎢𐏁", "transliteration": "Hinduš", "ipa": "*hinˈduʃ", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "sindhu", "derived_from": "indus-sanskrit-sindhu", "era_start": -518, "era_end": -330, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Darius I, Behistun inscription (DB) I.16; Naqsh-e Rustam (DNa) §3, the dahyāva land-lists." }, { "citation": "Kent, Roland G. *Old Persian: Grammar, Texts, Lexicon*. New Haven: American Oriental Society, 1953, s.v. *Hi(n)duš*." } ] }, { "id": "indus-sanskrit-sindhu", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/indus#sanskrit-sindhu", "civilization": "indus", "language": "sanskrit", "original_text": "सिन्धु", "transliteration": "Sindhu", "ipa": "/ˈsin̪.d̪ʱu/", "literal_meaning": "the river", "family": "sindhu", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1500, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Ṛgveda* 10.75 (the Nadīstuti, the praise of rivers), where Sindhu heads the rivers of the northwest." }, { "citation": "Macdonell, Arthur A., and Arthur B. Keith. *Vedic Index of Names and Subjects*. London: Murray, 1912, s.v. *Sindhu*." }, { "citation": "Monier-Williams, Monier. *A Sanskrit-English Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1899, s.v. *sindhu*." } ] }, { "id": "ionia-ancient-greek-ionia", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/ionia#ancient-greek-ionia", "civilization": "ionia", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Ἰωνία", "transliteration": "Iōnía", "ipa": "/i.ɔː.ˈni.a/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "ionian", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -700, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Herodotus, *Historiae* 1.142–148 (the twelve cities of the Ionian league)." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. Ἰωνία, Ἴωνες." } ] }, { "id": "ionia-latin-ionia", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/ionia#latin-ionia", "civilization": "ionia", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Ionia", "transliteration": "Ionia", "ipa": "/iˈoː.ni.a/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "ionian", "derived_from": "ionia-ancient-greek-ionia", "era_start": -50, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 5.112–117." }, { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Ionia*." } ] }, { "id": "ionia-old-persian-yauna", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/ionia#old-persian-yauna", "civilization": "ionia", "language": "old-persian", "original_text": "𐎹𐎢𐎴", "transliteration": "Yauna", "ipa": "*jauna", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "ionian", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -520, "era_end": -330, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Darius I, Behistun inscription (DB) §6; Naqsh-e Rustam (DNa); the Susa and Persepolis foundation texts." }, { "citation": "Kent, Roland G. *Old Persian: Grammar, Texts, Lexicon*. 2nd ed. New Haven: American Oriental Society, 1953, s.v. *Yauna-*." } ] }, { "id": "ionian-sea-ancient-greek-ionios", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/ionian-sea#ancient-greek-ionios", "civilization": "ionian-sea", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Ἰόνιος", "transliteration": "Iónios", "ipa": "/iˈo.ni.os/", "literal_meaning": "the Ionian Sea (from Io, the heifer-maiden)", "family": "ionios", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -500, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Aeschylus, *Prometheus Bound* 836–841 (the Ionian gulf named from Io's crossing); Herodotus, *Histories* 6.127, 7.20; Strabo, *Geography* 7.5.8–9." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. Ἰόνιος." } ] }, { "id": "ionian-sea-latin-ionium", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/ionian-sea#latin-ionium", "civilization": "ionian-sea", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Mare Ionium", "transliteration": "Mare Iōnium", "ipa": "/ˈma.re ioˈni.um/", "literal_meaning": "the Ionian Sea", "family": "ionios", "derived_from": "ionian-sea-ancient-greek-ionios", "era_start": -100, "era_end": 500, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Virgil, *Aeneid* 3.211 (*Ionio in magno*); Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 3.97, 3.100; Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Ionium (mare)*." } ] }, { "id": "iran-ancient-greek-ariane", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/iran#ancient-greek-ariane", "civilization": "iran", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Ἀριανή", "transliteration": "Arianḗ", "ipa": "/a.ri.a.ˈnɛː/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "eran", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -250, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Eratosthenes, in Strabo, *Geographica* 15.2.8; Strabo, *Geographica* 2.1.31." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. Ἀριανή." } ] }, { "id": "iran-avestan-airyana-vaejah", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/iran#avestan-airyana-vaejah", "civilization": "iran", "language": "avestan", "original_text": "𐬀𐬌𐬭𐬫𐬀𐬥𐬀 𐬬𐬀𐬉𐬲𐬀𐬵", "transliteration": "Airyana Vaēǰah", "ipa": "*ai̯r.ja.na ˈu̯ae̯.d͡ʒah", "literal_meaning": "the Aryan expanse", "family": "eran", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1000, "era_end": -300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Avesta, *Vidēvdād* (Vendidad) 1.1–2; *Yašt* 5.17 (Arədvī Sūrā at the Vaŋuhī Dāityā)." }, { "citation": "Boyce, Mary. *A History of Zoroastrianism*, Vol. 1. Leiden: Brill, 1975." } ] }, { "id": "iran-latin-ariana", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/iran#latin-ariana", "civilization": "iran", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Ariana", "transliteration": "Ariana", "ipa": "/a.riˈaː.na/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "eran", "derived_from": "iran-ancient-greek-ariane", "era_start": -50, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 6.23.93–95; Pomponius Mela, *De Chorographia* 1.12." }, { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Ariana*." } ] }, { "id": "iran-middle-persian-eran", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/iran#middle-persian-eran", "civilization": "iran", "language": "middle-persian", "original_text": "𐭠𐭩𐭥𐭠𐭭", "transliteration": "Ērān", "ipa": "/eːˈraːn/", "literal_meaning": "(the realm) of the Aryans", "family": "eran", "derived_from": null, "era_start": 224, "era_end": 1300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Šābuhr I, inscription on the Kaʿba-ye Zardošt (ŠKZ): *Ērānšahr*, \"the realm of the Aryans.\"" }, { "citation": "MacKenzie, D. N. *A Concise Pahlavi Dictionary*. London: Oxford University Press, 1971, s.v. *Ērān*." } ] }, { "id": "iran-old-persian-ariya", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/iran#old-persian-ariya", "civilization": "iran", "language": "old-persian", "original_text": "𐎠𐎼𐎡𐎹", "transliteration": "ariya", "ipa": "*ˈar.ja", "literal_meaning": "Aryan, noble", "family": "eran", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -520, "era_end": -330, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Darius I, Naqsh-e Rustam (DNa 8–15): *pārsa pārsahyā puça, ariya ariyaciça*." }, { "citation": "Kent, Roland G. *Old Persian: Grammar, Texts, Lexicon*. 2nd ed. New Haven: American Oriental Society, 1953, s.v. *ariya-*." } ] }, { "id": "iran-sanskrit-arya", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/iran#sanskrit-arya", "civilization": "iran", "language": "sanskrit", "original_text": "आर्य", "transliteration": "Ārya", "ipa": "/ˈaːr.jɐ/", "literal_meaning": "Aryan, noble", "family": "eran", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1200, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Ṛgveda* (the *ārya* people against the *dāsa*); *Manusmṛti* 2.22 (*Āryāvarta*, the land of the Aryans)." }, { "citation": "Monier-Williams, Monier. *A Sanskrit-English Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1899, s.v. *ārya*." } ] }, { "id": "israel-akkadian-bithumri", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/israel#akkadian-bithumri", "civilization": "israel", "language": "akkadian", "original_text": "𒂍𒄷𒌝𒊑𒄿", "transliteration": "Bīt-Ḫumri", "ipa": "/biːt ˈxumri/", "literal_meaning": "the House of Omri (the kingdom of Israel)", "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": -853, "era_end": -720, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Grayson, A. Kirk. *Assyrian Rulers of the Early First Millennium BC* (RIMA 3). Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1996 (Shalmaneser III, the Kurkh Monolith and the Black Obelisk)." }, { "citation": "*Chicago Assyrian Dictionary* (CAD), University of Chicago, s.v. *bītu*." } ] }, { "id": "israel-ancient-greek-israel", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/israel#ancient-greek-israel", "civilization": "israel", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Ἰσραήλ", "transliteration": "Israēl", "ipa": "/is.raˈɛːl/", "literal_meaning": "Israel", "family": "yisrael", "derived_from": "israel-biblical-hebrew-yisrael", "era_start": -250, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Septuagint, Genesis 32:28; Exodus, passim." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. *Ἰσραήλ*." } ] }, { "id": "israel-biblical-hebrew-yisrael", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/israel#biblical-hebrew-yisrael", "civilization": "israel", "language": "biblical-hebrew", "original_text": "יִשְׂרָאֵל", "transliteration": "Yiśrāʾēl", "ipa": "/jisrɔːˈʔeːl/", "literal_meaning": "Israel; traditionally 'he strives with God' or 'God strives'", "family": "yisrael", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1000, "era_end": -100, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament* (HALOT), Leiden: Brill, 1994–2000, s.v. *yiśrāʾēl*." }, { "citation": "Genesis 32:29; 1 Kings 12; 2 Kings 17." } ] }, { "id": "israel-classical-arabic-israil", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/israel#classical-arabic-israil", "civilization": "israel", "language": "classical-arabic", "original_text": "إسرائيل", "transliteration": "Isrāʾīl", "ipa": "/ʔisraːˈʔiːl/", "literal_meaning": "Israel (Jacob; the Children of Israel)", "family": "yisrael", "derived_from": null, "era_start": 610, "era_end": 1300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Qurʾān, *Sūrat Banī Isrāʾīl* / *al-Isrāʾ* (17); *Sūrat al-Baqara* (2):40, passim." }, { "citation": "Lane, Edward William. *An Arabic-English Lexicon*. London: Williams and Norgate, 1863–1893." } ] }, { "id": "israel-geez-esrael", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/israel#geez-esrael", "civilization": "israel", "language": "geez", "original_text": "እስራኤል", "transliteration": "ʾƎsrāʾēl", "ipa": "/ʔəsraːˈʔeːl/", "literal_meaning": "Israel", "family": "yisrael", "derived_from": "israel-ancient-greek-israel", "era_start": 350, "era_end": 700, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Ethiopic Old Testament, Genesis 32:28; Exodus, passim." }, { "citation": "Dillmann, August. *Lexicon Linguae Aethiopicae*. Leipzig: Weigel, 1865." } ] }, { "id": "israel-latin-israel", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/israel#latin-israel", "civilization": "israel", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Israel", "transliteration": "Israel", "ipa": "/ˈis.ra.el/", "literal_meaning": "Israel (from Greek, ultimately Hebrew)", "family": "yisrael", "derived_from": "israel-ancient-greek-israel", "era_start": 200, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Jerome, *Vulgata*, Genesis 32:28; Romans 9–11." }, { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Israel*." } ] }, { "id": "israel-syriac-israel", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/israel#syriac-israel", "civilization": "israel", "language": "syriac", "original_text": "ܐܝܣܪܐܝܠ", "transliteration": "ʾIsrāʾēl", "ipa": "/ʔiːsraːˈʔeːl/", "literal_meaning": "Israel", "family": "yisrael", "derived_from": "israel-biblical-hebrew-yisrael", "era_start": 150, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Peshitta, Genesis 32:28; Exodus, passim." }, { "citation": "Payne Smith, R. *Thesaurus Syriacus*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879–1901, s.v. ܐܝܣܪܐܝܠ." } ] }, { "id": "italia-ancient-greek-hesperia", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/italia#ancient-greek-hesperia", "civilization": "italia", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Ἑσπερία", "transliteration": "Hespería", "ipa": "/he.spe.ˈri.aː/", "literal_meaning": "the western land (from hésperos, \"evening, west\")", "family": "hesperia", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -500, "era_end": 200, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. *Ἑσπερία*." }, { "citation": "Greek geographical and poetic usage (Apollonius of Rhodes, *Argonautica* 4)." } ] }, { "id": "italia-ancient-greek-italia", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/italia#ancient-greek-italia", "civilization": "italia", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Ἰταλία", "transliteration": "Italía", "ipa": "/i.ta.ˈli.aː/", "literal_meaning": "Italy (originally the southern toe; \"land of calves\")", "family": "italia", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -500, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Herodotus, *Histories* 1.24, 4.15." }, { "citation": "Thucydides, *History of the Peloponnesian War* 6.2, 7.33." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. *Ἰταλία*." } ] }, { "id": "italia-ancient-greek-oenotria", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/italia#ancient-greek-oenotria", "civilization": "italia", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Οἰνωτρία", "transliteration": "Oinōtría", "ipa": "/oi̯.nɔː.ˈtri.aː/", "literal_meaning": "the land of vines (from oînos, \"wine\")", "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": -500, "era_end": 100, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Herodotus, *Histories* 1.167." }, { "citation": "Strabo, *Geography* 6.1.4 (on Oinōtría and the Oenotrians)." } ] }, { "id": "italia-classical-arabic-italiya", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/italia#classical-arabic-italiya", "civilization": "italia", "language": "classical-arabic", "original_text": "إيطاليا", "transliteration": "Īṭāliyā", "ipa": "/ʔiːtˤaːˈlija/", "literal_meaning": "Italy", "family": "italia", "derived_from": "italia-latin-italia", "era_start": 800, "era_end": 1300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "al-Idrīsī. *Nuzhat al-mushtāq* (the Book of Roger), on the lands of the Franks and Lombards." }, { "citation": "Yāqūt al-Ḥamawī. *Muʿjam al-Buldān*." } ] }, { "id": "italia-geez-italya", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/italia#geez-italya", "civilization": "italia", "language": "geez", "original_text": "ኢጣልያ", "transliteration": "Iṭalya", "ipa": "/ʔiˈtˤalja/", "literal_meaning": "Italy", "family": "italia", "derived_from": "italia-ancient-greek-italia", "era_start": 350, "era_end": 700, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Ethiopic New Testament (Acts; Hebrews 13:24)." }, { "citation": "Dillmann, August. *Lexicon Linguae Aethiopicae*. Leipzig: Weigel, 1865." } ] }, { "id": "italia-latin-ausonia", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/italia#latin-ausonia", "civilization": "italia", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Ausonia", "transliteration": "Ausonia", "ipa": "/au̯ˈso.ni.a/", "literal_meaning": "Italy (after the Ausones, an ancient people of the south)", "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": -50, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Virgil, *Aeneid* 3.477, 7.55, 10.054 (*Ausonia*, *Ausonii*)." }, { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Ausonia*." } ] }, { "id": "italia-latin-hesperia", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/italia#latin-hesperia", "civilization": "italia", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Hesperia", "transliteration": "Hesperia", "ipa": "/heˈspe.ri.a/", "literal_meaning": "the western land", "family": "hesperia", "derived_from": "italia-ancient-greek-hesperia", "era_start": -50, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Virgil, *Aeneid* 1.530–531, 3.163–166 (\"est locus, Hesperiam Grai cognomine dicunt\")." }, { "citation": "Horace, *Odes* 3.6; Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Hesperia*." } ] }, { "id": "italia-latin-italia", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/italia#latin-italia", "civilization": "italia", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Italia", "transliteration": "Italia", "ipa": "/iˈta.li.a/", "literal_meaning": "Italy (\"land of calves\")", "family": "italia", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -200, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Varro, *De Re Rustica* 2.1.9 (the calf etymology, citing Timaeus and Piso)." }, { "citation": "Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 3.46." }, { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Italia*." } ] }, { "id": "italia-syriac-italya", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/italia#syriac-italya", "civilization": "italia", "language": "syriac", "original_text": "ܐܝܛܠܝܐ", "transliteration": "Iṭalya", "ipa": "/ʔiˈtˤalja/", "literal_meaning": "Italy", "family": "italia", "derived_from": "italia-ancient-greek-italia", "era_start": 150, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Peshitta, Acts 18:2, 27:1, 27:6; Hebrews 13:24 (ܐܝܛܠܝܐ)." }, { "citation": "Payne Smith, R. *Thesaurus Syriacus*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879–1901, s.v. ܐܝܛܠܝܐ." } ] }, { "id": "jaxartes-ancient-greek-iaxartes", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/jaxartes#ancient-greek-iaxartes", "civilization": "jaxartes", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Ἰαξάρτης", "transliteration": "Iaxártēs", "ipa": "/i.ak.ˈsar.tɛːs/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "jaxartes", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -330, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Arrian, *Anabasis* 4.1, 4.4 (Alexandria Eschate on its bank); Strabo, *Geographica* 11.11.5." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. Ἰαξάρτης." } ] }, { "id": "jaxartes-classical-arabic-sayhun", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/jaxartes#classical-arabic-sayhun", "civilization": "jaxartes", "language": "classical-arabic", "original_text": "سيحون", "transliteration": "Sayḥūn", "ipa": "/sajˈħuːn/", "literal_meaning": "the Pishon (of Paradise)", "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": 700, "era_end": 1300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "al-Iṣṭakhrī, *Kitāb al-Masālik wa-l-Mamālik*. Ed. de Goeje, Leiden: Brill, 1870." }, { "citation": "Yāqūt al-Ḥamawī, *Muʿjam al-Buldān*. Beirut: Dār Ṣādir, 1977, s.v. سيحون." } ] }, { "id": "jaxartes-latin-iaxartes", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/jaxartes#latin-iaxartes", "civilization": "jaxartes", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Iaxartes", "transliteration": "Iaxartes", "ipa": "/i.akˈsar.teːs/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "jaxartes", "derived_from": "jaxartes-ancient-greek-iaxartes", "era_start": -50, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 6.18.49; Quintus Curtius Rufus, *Historiae Alexandri* 7.6–7." }, { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Iaxartes*." } ] }, { "id": "jerusalem-akkadian-urusalim", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/jerusalem#akkadian-urusalim", "civilization": "jerusalem", "language": "akkadian", "original_text": "𒌷𒌑𒊒𒊓𒅆", "transliteration": "Urusalim", "ipa": "/uruˈsalim/", "literal_meaning": "Jerusalem (\"foundation of Shalem\")", "family": "yerushalem", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1360, "era_end": -1330, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Moran, William L. *The Amarna Letters*. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992, EA 287, 289 (the letters of Abdi-Ḫeba of Jerusalem)." }, { "citation": "Knudtzon, J. A. *Die el-Amarna-Tafeln*. Leipzig, 1915, nos. 285–290." } ] }, { "id": "jerusalem-ancient-greek-hierosolyma", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/jerusalem#ancient-greek-hierosolyma", "civilization": "jerusalem", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Ἱεροσόλυμα", "transliteration": "Hierosólyma", "ipa": "/hi.e.roˈso.ly.ma/", "literal_meaning": "Jerusalem; reanalyzed as 'holy Solyma' (hieros, 'holy')", "family": "yerushalem", "derived_from": "jerusalem-biblical-hebrew-yerushalayim", "era_start": -300, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. *Ἱεροσόλυμα*." }, { "citation": "Josephus, *Jewish War* and *Antiquities*, passim; New Testament (also the transliteration Ἰερουσαλήμ)." } ] }, { "id": "jerusalem-biblical-hebrew-yerushalayim", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/jerusalem#biblical-hebrew-yerushalayim", "civilization": "jerusalem", "language": "biblical-hebrew", "original_text": "יְרוּשָׁלַיִם", "transliteration": "Yĕrûšālayim", "ipa": "/jĕruːʃɔːˈlajim/", "literal_meaning": "foundation of Shalem", "family": "yerushalem", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1000, "era_end": 200, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament* (HALOT), Leiden: Brill, 1994–2000, s.v. *yĕrûšālaim*." }, { "citation": "2 Samuel 5:6–9; Joshua 10:1; Psalm 122." } ] }, { "id": "jerusalem-biblical-hebrew-zion", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/jerusalem#biblical-hebrew-zion", "civilization": "jerusalem", "language": "biblical-hebrew", "original_text": "צִיּוֹן", "transliteration": "Ṣiyyôn", "ipa": "/sˤiːˈjoːn/", "literal_meaning": "Zion (the citadel-hill of Jerusalem); meaning uncertain", "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1000, "era_end": -100, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament* (HALOT), Leiden: Brill, 1994–2000, s.v. *ṣiyyôn*." }, { "citation": "2 Samuel 5:7; Psalm 48, 137; Isaiah 1:27." } ] }, { "id": "jerusalem-classical-arabic-baytalmaqdis", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/jerusalem#classical-arabic-baytalmaqdis", "civilization": "jerusalem", "language": "classical-arabic", "original_text": "بيت المقدس", "transliteration": "Bayt al-Maqdis", "ipa": "/bajt alˈmaqdis/", "literal_meaning": "the house of the sanctuary (the Holy House)", "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": 638, "era_end": 1400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "al-Muqaddasī. *Aḥsan al-Taqāsīm fī Maʿrifat al-Aqālīm*, 10th c. (the author's own name means 'the Jerusalemite')." }, { "citation": "*The Encyclopaedia of Islam*. 2nd ed. Leiden: Brill, 1960–2005, s.v. *Bayt al-Maḳdis*." } ] }, { "id": "jerusalem-classical-arabic-iliya", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/jerusalem#classical-arabic-iliya", "civilization": "jerusalem", "language": "classical-arabic", "original_text": "إيلياء", "transliteration": "Īliyāʾ", "ipa": "/ʔiːˈlijaːʔ/", "literal_meaning": "Aelia (Jerusalem; from Roman Aelia Capitolina)", "family": "aelia", "derived_from": "jerusalem-latin-aelia", "era_start": 638, "era_end": 1000, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "al-Ṭabarī. *Taʾrīkh al-Rusul wa-l-Mulūk* (the surrender of Jerusalem to ʿUmar, 638 CE)." }, { "citation": "*The Encyclopaedia of Islam*. 2nd ed. Leiden: Brill, 1960–2005, s.v. *al-Ḳuds*, *Īliyāʾ*." } ] }, { "id": "jerusalem-classical-arabic-quds", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/jerusalem#classical-arabic-quds", "civilization": "jerusalem", "language": "classical-arabic", "original_text": "القُدس", "transliteration": "al-Quds", "ipa": "/alˈquds/", "literal_meaning": "the Holy", "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": 800, "era_end": 1400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Yāqūt al-Ḥamawī. *Muʿjam al-Buldān*, s.v. القدس, بيت المقدس." }, { "citation": "al-Muqaddasī. *Aḥsan al-Taqāsīm fī Maʿrifat al-Aqālīm*, 10th c." } ] }, { "id": "jerusalem-geez-iyerusalem", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/jerusalem#geez-iyerusalem", "civilization": "jerusalem", "language": "geez", "original_text": "ኢየሩሳሌም", "transliteration": "Iyarusalēm", "ipa": "/ʔijarusaˈleːm/", "literal_meaning": "Jerusalem", "family": "yerushalem", "derived_from": "jerusalem-ancient-greek-hierosolyma", "era_start": 350, "era_end": 700, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Ethiopic Old Testament and Gospels, passim." }, { "citation": "Dillmann, August. *Lexicon Linguae Aethiopicae*. Leipzig: Weigel, 1865." } ] }, { "id": "jerusalem-imperial-aramaic-yerushlem", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/jerusalem#imperial-aramaic-yerushlem", "civilization": "jerusalem", "language": "imperial-aramaic", "original_text": "ירושלם", "transliteration": "Yĕrûšlem", "ipa": "*jĕruːʃˈlem", "literal_meaning": "Jerusalem", "family": "yerushalem", "derived_from": "jerusalem-biblical-hebrew-yerushalayim", "era_start": -500, "era_end": -200, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Ezra 4:8–6:18; Daniel 5–6 (Aramaic)." }, { "citation": "Hoftijzer, J., and K. Jongeling. *Dictionary of the North-West Semitic Inscriptions*. Leiden: Brill, 1995." } ] }, { "id": "jerusalem-jewish-babylonian-aramaic-yerushalem", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/jerusalem#jewish-babylonian-aramaic-yerushalem", "civilization": "jerusalem", "language": "jewish-babylonian-aramaic", "original_text": "ירושלים", "transliteration": "Yĕrûšālayim", "ipa": "/jĕruːʃaːˈlajim/", "literal_meaning": "Jerusalem (\"foundation of Shalem\")", "family": "yerushalem", "derived_from": null, "era_start": 200, "era_end": 700, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Sokoloff, Michael. *A Dictionary of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic*. Ramat-Gan: Bar Ilan University Press, 2002, s.v. ירושלם." }, { "citation": "Babylonian Talmud, e.g. b. *Taʿanit* 5a (\"the Jerusalem of the world to come\"), b. *Bava Batra* 75b." } ] }, { "id": "jerusalem-latin-aelia", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/jerusalem#latin-aelia", "civilization": "jerusalem", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Aelia Capitolina", "transliteration": "Aelia Capitolina", "ipa": "/ˈae̯.li.a ka.pi.toˈliː.na/", "literal_meaning": "the Aelian (city) of Capitoline Jupiter", "family": "aelia", "derived_from": null, "era_start": 130, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Cassius Dio, *Roman History* 69.12." }, { "citation": "Eusebius, *Ecclesiastical History*; Roman colonial inscriptions of Aelia Capitolina." } ] }, { "id": "jerusalem-latin-hierosolyma", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/jerusalem#latin-hierosolyma", "civilization": "jerusalem", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Hierosolyma", "transliteration": "Hierosolyma", "ipa": "/hi.eˈro.so.ly.ma/", "literal_meaning": "Jerusalem (from Greek)", "family": "yerushalem", "derived_from": "jerusalem-ancient-greek-hierosolyma", "era_start": -50, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Hierosolyma*." }, { "citation": "Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 5.70; Jerome, *Vulgata* (Hierusalem / Hierosolyma)." } ] }, { "id": "jerusalem-syriac-urishlem", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/jerusalem#syriac-urishlem", "civilization": "jerusalem", "language": "syriac", "original_text": "ܐܘܪܫܠܡ", "transliteration": "Ūrišlem", "ipa": "/ʔuːriːʃˈlem/", "literal_meaning": "Jerusalem", "family": "yerushalem", "derived_from": "jerusalem-imperial-aramaic-yerushlem", "era_start": 150, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Peshitta, 2 Samuel 5; Gospels, passim." }, { "citation": "Payne Smith, R. *Thesaurus Syriacus*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879–1901, s.v. ܐܘܪܫܠܡ." } ] }, { "id": "jordan-ancient-greek-iordanes", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/jordan#ancient-greek-iordanes", "civilization": "jordan", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Ἰορδάνης", "transliteration": "Iordánēs", "ipa": "/i.or.ˈda.nɛːs/", "literal_meaning": "the Jordan", "family": "yarden", "derived_from": "jordan-biblical-hebrew-yarden", "era_start": -250, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Septuagint, Joshua 3–4; Matthew 3:13; Mark 1:9 (Ἰορδάνης)." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. *Ἰορδάνης*." } ] }, { "id": "jordan-biblical-hebrew-yarden", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/jordan#biblical-hebrew-yarden", "civilization": "jordan", "language": "biblical-hebrew", "original_text": "יַרְדֵּן", "transliteration": "Yardēn", "ipa": "/jarˈdeːn/", "literal_meaning": "the descender (from yārad, \"to go down\")", "family": "yarden", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1000, "era_end": -200, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament* (HALOT), Leiden: Brill, 1994–2000, s.v. *yardēn*." }, { "citation": "Genesis 13:10–11; Joshua 3–4 (the crossing); 2 Kings 2:8, 5:10–14." } ] }, { "id": "jordan-classical-arabic-urdunn", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/jordan#classical-arabic-urdunn", "civilization": "jordan", "language": "classical-arabic", "original_text": "الأردن", "transliteration": "al-Urdunn", "ipa": "/alʔurˈdunn/", "literal_meaning": "the Jordan", "family": "yarden", "derived_from": "jordan-biblical-hebrew-yarden", "era_start": 700, "era_end": 1300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Yāqūt al-Ḥamawī. *Muʿjam al-Buldān*, s.v. الأردن." }, { "citation": "al-Balādhurī. *Futūḥ al-Buldān* (the early conquests; the military district of al-Urdunn)." } ] }, { "id": "jordan-geez-yordanos", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/jordan#geez-yordanos", "civilization": "jordan", "language": "geez", "original_text": "ዮርዳኖስ", "transliteration": "Yordanos", "ipa": "/jordaˈnos/", "literal_meaning": "the Jordan", "family": "yarden", "derived_from": "jordan-ancient-greek-iordanes", "era_start": 350, "era_end": 700, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Ethiopic New Testament (Matthew 3; Mark 1)." }, { "citation": "Dillmann, August. *Lexicon Linguae Aethiopicae*. Leipzig: Weigel, 1865." } ] }, { "id": "jordan-latin-iordanis", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/jordan#latin-iordanis", "civilization": "jordan", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Iordanis", "transliteration": "Iordanis", "ipa": "/iˈor.da.nis/", "literal_meaning": "the Jordan", "family": "yarden", "derived_from": "jordan-ancient-greek-iordanes", "era_start": 200, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Jerome, *Vulgata*, Joshua 3; Matthew 3:13; Mark 1:9 (*Iordanis*)." }, { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Iordanes*." } ] }, { "id": "jordan-syriac-yurdenan", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/jordan#syriac-yurdenan", "civilization": "jordan", "language": "syriac", "original_text": "ܝܘܪܕܢܢ", "transliteration": "Yurdĕnān", "ipa": "/jurdeˈnan/", "literal_meaning": "the Jordan", "family": "yarden", "derived_from": "jordan-biblical-hebrew-yarden", "era_start": 150, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Peshitta, Matthew 3:5–6, 3:13; Mark 1:5, 1:9 (ܝܘܪܕܢܢ)." }, { "citation": "Payne Smith, R. *Thesaurus Syriacus*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879–1901, s.v. ܝܘܪܕܢܢ." } ] }, { "id": "judah-akkadian-yaudu", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/judah#akkadian-yaudu", "civilization": "judah", "language": "akkadian", "original_text": "𒅀𒌑𒁺", "transliteration": "Yāʾudu", "ipa": "/jaːˈʔudu/", "literal_meaning": "Judah (in Assyrian royal usage)", "family": "yehudah", "derived_from": "judah-biblical-hebrew-yehudah", "era_start": -733, "era_end": -600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Tadmor, Hayim. *The Inscriptions of Tiglath-Pileser III, King of Assyria*. Jerusalem: Israel Academy of Sciences, 1994." }, { "citation": "Grayson, A. Kirk, and Jamie Novotny. *The Royal Inscriptions of Sennacherib* (RINAP 3). Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 2012." } ] }, { "id": "judah-ancient-greek-ioudaia", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/judah#ancient-greek-ioudaia", "civilization": "judah", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Ἰουδαία", "transliteration": "Ioudaía", "ipa": "/i.uˈdai.a/", "literal_meaning": "Judaea (the land of Judah)", "family": "yehudah", "derived_from": "judah-biblical-hebrew-yehudah", "era_start": -300, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. *Ἰουδαία*, *Ἰουδαῖος*." }, { "citation": "Septuagint; Josephus, *Jewish Antiquities*; New Testament, passim." } ] }, { "id": "judah-biblical-hebrew-yehudah", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/judah#biblical-hebrew-yehudah", "civilization": "judah", "language": "biblical-hebrew", "original_text": "יְהוּדָה", "transliteration": "Yĕhûdāh", "ipa": "/jəhuːˈdɔː/", "literal_meaning": "Judah; traditionally connected to 'praise' (Genesis 29:35)", "family": "yehudah", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1000, "era_end": -100, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament* (HALOT), Leiden: Brill, 1994–2000, s.v. *yĕhûdāh*." }, { "citation": "Genesis 29:35, 49:8; 2 Kings 25; Jeremiah 52." } ] }, { "id": "judah-classical-arabic-yahud", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/judah#classical-arabic-yahud", "civilization": "judah", "language": "classical-arabic", "original_text": "اليهود", "transliteration": "al-Yahūd", "ipa": "/aljaˈhuːd/", "literal_meaning": "the Jews (the people of Judah); cf. the land Yahūdā", "family": "yehudah", "derived_from": null, "era_start": 610, "era_end": 1300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Qurʾān, *Sūrat al-Baqara* (2):113, 120; *Sūrat al-Māʾida* (5):18, 51, 82." }, { "citation": "Lane, Edward William. *An Arabic-English Lexicon*. London: Williams and Norgate, 1863–1893, s.v. هود." } ] }, { "id": "judah-geez-yihuda", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/judah#geez-yihuda", "civilization": "judah", "language": "geez", "original_text": "ይሁዳ", "transliteration": "Yihudā", "ipa": "/jihuˈda/", "literal_meaning": "Judah", "family": "yehudah", "derived_from": "judah-ancient-greek-ioudaia", "era_start": 350, "era_end": 700, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Ethiopic Old Testament, Genesis 29:35; Gospels, passim." }, { "citation": "Dillmann, August. *Lexicon Linguae Aethiopicae*. Leipzig: Weigel, 1865." } ] }, { "id": "judah-imperial-aramaic-yehud", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/judah#imperial-aramaic-yehud", "civilization": "judah", "language": "imperial-aramaic", "original_text": "יהוד", "transliteration": "Yĕhûd", "ipa": "*jəˈhuːd", "literal_meaning": "Judah (the Persian-period province)", "family": "yehudah", "derived_from": "judah-biblical-hebrew-yehudah", "era_start": -539, "era_end": -330, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Porten, Bezalel, and Ada Yardeni. *Textbook of Aramaic Documents from Ancient Egypt* (TADAE). Jerusalem: Hebrew University, 1986–1999." }, { "citation": "Meshorer, Ya'akov. *A Treasury of Jewish Coins*. Jerusalem: Yad Ben-Zvi, 2001 (the Yehud coinage)." } ] }, { "id": "judah-latin-iudaea", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/judah#latin-iudaea", "civilization": "judah", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Iūdaea", "transliteration": "Iūdaea", "ipa": "/juːˈdae̯.a/", "literal_meaning": "Judaea (the land of Judah; from Greek)", "family": "yehudah", "derived_from": "judah-ancient-greek-ioudaia", "era_start": -50, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Iudaea*, *Iudaeus*." }, { "citation": "Tacitus, *Historiae* 5.1–13; Jerome, *Vulgata*, passim." } ] }, { "id": "judah-syriac-yihuda", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/judah#syriac-yihuda", "civilization": "judah", "language": "syriac", "original_text": "ܝܗܘܕܐ", "transliteration": "Īhûdā", "ipa": "/iːhuˈðɔ/", "literal_meaning": "Judah; Judaea", "family": "yehudah", "derived_from": "judah-imperial-aramaic-yehud", "era_start": 150, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Peshitta, Genesis 29:35; Gospels, passim." }, { "citation": "Payne Smith, R. *Thesaurus Syriacus*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879–1901, s.v. ܝܗܘܕܐ." } ] }, { "id": "knossos-ancient-greek-knosos", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/knossos#ancient-greek-knosos", "civilization": "knossos", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Κνωσός", "transliteration": "Knōsós", "ipa": "/knɔːˈsos/", "literal_meaning": "Knossos", "family": "knossos", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -800, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Homer, *Odyssey* 19.178 (Κνωσός, \"a great city, where Minos ruled\")." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. Κνωσός." } ] }, { "id": "knossos-latin-cnosus", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/knossos#latin-cnosus", "civilization": "knossos", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Cnosus", "transliteration": "Cnosus", "ipa": "/ˈknoː.sus/", "literal_meaning": "Knossos", "family": "knossos", "derived_from": "knossos-ancient-greek-knosos", "era_start": -100, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Cnosus*, *Gnosius*." } ] }, { "id": "knossos-mycenaean-greek-ko-no-so", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/knossos#mycenaean-greek-ko-no-so", "civilization": "knossos", "language": "mycenaean-greek", "original_text": "𐀒𐀜𐀰", "transliteration": "ko-no-so", "ipa": "*knossos", "literal_meaning": "Knossos", "family": "knossos", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1450, "era_end": -1200, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "The Knossos Linear B tablets (the place-name *ko-no-so*, ethnic *ko-no-si-jo*)." }, { "citation": "Ventris, Michael, and John Chadwick. *Documents in Mycenaean Greek*. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1973." } ] }, { "id": "latium-ancient-greek-lation", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/latium#ancient-greek-lation", "civilization": "latium", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Λάτιον", "transliteration": "Látion", "ipa": "/ˈla.ti.on/", "literal_meaning": "Latium", "family": "latium", "derived_from": "latium-latin-latium", "era_start": -100, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Strabo, *Geography* 5.3.1–4; Dionysius of Halicarnassus, *Roman Antiquities* 1.9, 1.60." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. Λάτιον." } ] }, { "id": "latium-latin-latium", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/latium#latin-latium", "civilization": "latium", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Latium", "transliteration": "Latium", "ipa": "/ˈla.ti.um/", "literal_meaning": "Latium (the flat land, or the hiding-place)", "family": "latium", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -753, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Vergil, *Aeneid* 8.322–323 (*Latium­que vocari maluit, his quoniam latuisset tutus in oris*); Varro, *De Lingua Latina* 5.32; Ovid, *Fasti* 1.238." }, { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Latium*." } ] }, { "id": "lebanon-akkadian-labnanu", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/lebanon#akkadian-labnanu", "civilization": "lebanon", "language": "akkadian", "original_text": "𒆷𒀊𒈾𒉡", "transliteration": "Labnānu", "ipa": "/labˈnaːnu/", "literal_meaning": "the white (mountain)", "family": "lbn", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -2400, "era_end": -600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Chicago Assyrian Dictionary* (CAD), University of Chicago, Vol. L, s.v. *Labnānu*." }, { "citation": "Assyrian royal inscriptions (cedar from Labnānu); the Standard Babylonian *Gilgamesh*, Tablets IV–V (the Cedar Forest)." } ] }, { "id": "lebanon-ancient-greek-libanos", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/lebanon#ancient-greek-libanos", "civilization": "lebanon", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Λίβανος", "transliteration": "Líbanos", "ipa": "/ˈli.ba.nos/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "lbn", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -500, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Theophrastus, *Historia Plantarum* 5.8.1; Strabo, *Geographica* 16.2.18." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. Λίβανος, λίβανος." } ] }, { "id": "lebanon-biblical-hebrew-levanon", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/lebanon#biblical-hebrew-levanon", "civilization": "lebanon", "language": "biblical-hebrew", "original_text": "לְבָנוֹן", "transliteration": "Lᵊḇānōn", "ipa": "/ləvaːˈnoːn/", "literal_meaning": "the white (mountain)", "family": "lbn", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1000, "era_end": -200, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Deuteronomy 3:25; 1 Kings 5:13–28; Psalm 29:5–6, 92:12; Song of Songs 4:8, 4:11." }, { "citation": "Köhler, Ludwig, and Walter Baumgartner. *Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament* (HALOT). Leiden: Brill, 1994–2000, s.v. לְבָנוֹן." } ] }, { "id": "lebanon-classical-arabic-lubnan", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/lebanon#classical-arabic-lubnan", "civilization": "lebanon", "language": "classical-arabic", "original_text": "لبنان", "transliteration": "Lubnān", "ipa": "/lubˈnaːn/", "literal_meaning": "the white (mountain)", "family": "lbn", "derived_from": null, "era_start": 600, "era_end": 1300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Yāqūt al-Ḥamawī, *Muʿjam al-Buldān*. Beirut: Dār Ṣādir, 1977, s.v. لبنان." }, { "citation": "Lane, Edward William. *An Arabic-English Lexicon*. London: Williams and Norgate, 1863–93, s.v. ل-ب-ن." } ] }, { "id": "lebanon-latin-libanus", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/lebanon#latin-libanus", "civilization": "lebanon", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Libanus", "transliteration": "Libanus", "ipa": "/ˈli.ba.nus/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "lbn", "derived_from": "lebanon-ancient-greek-libanos", "era_start": -50, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 5.17.77–78; Tacitus, *Historiae* 5.6." }, { "citation": "Vulgate (*Libanus* throughout, e.g. 1 Kings 5; Psalm 92:13; Song of Songs 4:8)." } ] }, { "id": "lebanon-phoenician-lbnn", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/lebanon#phoenician-lbnn", "civilization": "lebanon", "language": "phoenician", "original_text": "𐤋𐤁𐤍𐤍", "transliteration": "Lbnn", "ipa": "*labˈnaːn", "literal_meaning": "the white (mountain)", "family": "lbn", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -800, "era_end": -300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Baal-Lebanon inscription (KAI 31), c. 8th c. BCE (bronze bowl fragments, Cyprus)." }, { "citation": "Krahmalkov, Charles R. *Phoenician-Punic Dictionary*. Leuven: Peeters, 2000, s.v. *lbnn*." } ] }, { "id": "lebanon-syriac-lebnan", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/lebanon#syriac-lebnan", "civilization": "lebanon", "language": "syriac", "original_text": "ܠܒܢܢ", "transliteration": "Lebnān", "ipa": "/lɛβˈnaːn/", "literal_meaning": "the white (mountain)", "family": "lbn", "derived_from": null, "era_start": 150, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Peshitta (*Lebnān* for the biblical Lebanon, e.g. 1 Kings 5; Psalm 92:13)." }, { "citation": "Payne Smith, Robert. *Thesaurus Syriacus*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879–1901, s.v. ܠܒܢܢ." } ] }, { "id": "lebanon-ugaritic-lbnn", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/lebanon#ugaritic-lbnn", "civilization": "lebanon", "language": "ugaritic", "original_text": "𐎍𐎁𐎐𐎐", "transliteration": "Lbnn", "ipa": "*labˈnaːnu", "literal_meaning": "the white (mountain)", "family": "lbn", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1400, "era_end": -1190, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "del Olmo Lete, Gregorio, and Joaquín Sanmartín. *A Dictionary of the Ugaritic Language in the Alphabetic Tradition*. Leiden: Brill, 2003, s.v. *lbnn*." }, { "citation": "Baal Cycle, KTU 1.4 VI 18–21 (cedar from *lbnn* and *šryn* for Baal's palace)." } ] }, { "id": "lycia-ancient-greek-lykia", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/lycia#ancient-greek-lykia", "civilization": "lycia", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Λυκία", "transliteration": "Lykía", "ipa": "/ly.ˈki.a/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "lykia", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -700, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Homer, *Iliad* 2.876–877, 6.168–211 (Sarpedon and Glaucus); Herodotus, *Historiae* 1.173." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. Λυκία." } ] }, { "id": "lycia-latin-lycia", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/lycia#latin-lycia", "civilization": "lycia", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Lycia", "transliteration": "Lycia", "ipa": "/ˈly.ki.a/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "lykia", "derived_from": "lycia-ancient-greek-lykia", "era_start": -50, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 5.100–101; Suetonius, *Claudius* 25." }, { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Lycia*." } ] }, { "id": "lycia-lycian-trmmili", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/lycia#lycian-trmmili", "civilization": "lycia", "language": "lycian", "original_text": "𐊗𐊕𐊐𐊎𐊆𐊍𐊆", "transliteration": "Trm̃mili", "ipa": null, "literal_meaning": null, "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": -500, "era_end": -300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Letoon trilingual stele (N 320), Lycian-Greek-Aramaic, c. 337 BCE." }, { "citation": "Melchert, H. Craig. *A Dictionary of the Lycian Language*. Ann Arbor: Beech Stave Press, 2004, s.v. *Trm̃mili-*." } ] }, { "id": "lydia-akkadian-luddu", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/lydia#akkadian-luddu", "civilization": "lydia", "language": "akkadian", "original_text": "𒇻𒌓𒁺", "transliteration": "Luddu", "ipa": "/ˈlud.du/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "luddu", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -670, "era_end": -640, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Royal Inscriptions of Ashurbanipal (RINAP 5), the Prism: *Gugu šar Luddi*, \"Gyges king of Lydia.\"" }, { "citation": "*Chicago Assyrian Dictionary* (CAD), University of Chicago, s.v. *Luddu*." } ] }, { "id": "lydia-ancient-greek-lydia", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/lydia#ancient-greek-lydia", "civilization": "lydia", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Λυδία", "transliteration": "Lydía", "ipa": "/ly.ˈdi.a/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "lydia", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -700, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Herodotus, *Historiae* 1.7–94 (the Mermnad kings, Gyges to Croesus)." }, { "citation": "Homer, *Iliad* 2.864–866 (the *Mēíones*); Liddell-Scott-Jones (LSJ), s.v. Λυδία." } ] }, { "id": "lydia-biblical-hebrew-lud", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/lydia#biblical-hebrew-lud", "civilization": "lydia", "language": "biblical-hebrew", "original_text": "לוּד", "transliteration": "Lud", "ipa": "/luːd/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "luddu", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -700, "era_end": -200, "confidence": "disputed", "sources": [ { "citation": "Genesis 10:22; Isaiah 66:19; Ezekiel 27:10, 30:5." }, { "citation": "Köhler, Ludwig, and Walter Baumgartner. *Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament* (HALOT). Leiden: Brill, 1994–2000, s.v. לוּד." } ] }, { "id": "lydia-latin-lydia", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/lydia#latin-lydia", "civilization": "lydia", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Lydia", "transliteration": "Lydia", "ipa": "/ˈly.di.a/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "lydia", "derived_from": "lydia-ancient-greek-lydia", "era_start": -50, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 5.110; Tacitus, *Annales* 4.55." }, { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Lydia*." } ] }, { "id": "lydia-old-persian-sparda", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/lydia#old-persian-sparda", "civilization": "lydia", "language": "old-persian", "original_text": "𐎿𐎱𐎼𐎭", "transliteration": "Sparda", "ipa": "*spar.da", "literal_meaning": null, "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": -520, "era_end": -330, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Darius I, Behistun inscription (DB) §6; Naqsh-e Rustam (DNa), the satrapy lists." }, { "citation": "Kent, Roland G. *Old Persian: Grammar, Texts, Lexicon*. 2nd ed. New Haven: American Oriental Society, 1953, s.v. *Sparda-*." } ] }, { "id": "macedon-ancient-greek-makedon", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/macedon#ancient-greek-makedon", "civilization": "macedon", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Μακεδών", "transliteration": "Makedṓn", "ipa": "/ma.keˈdɔːn/", "literal_meaning": "a Macedonian; Macedon", "family": "makedon", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -700, "era_end": -146, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. Μακεδών." }, { "citation": "Herodotus, *Histories* 5.17–22; Thucydides, *History* 2.99." } ] }, { "id": "macedon-classical-arabic-maqduni", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/macedon#classical-arabic-maqduni", "civilization": "macedon", "language": "classical-arabic", "original_text": "المقدوني", "transliteration": "al-Maqdūnī", "ipa": "/al.maqˈduːniː/", "literal_meaning": "the Macedonian (the standing epithet of Alexander)", "family": "makedon", "derived_from": null, "era_start": 700, "era_end": 1300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "al-Ṭabarī, *Taʾrīkh al-rusul wa-l-mulūk*; al-Masʿūdī, *Murūj al-dhahab* (both name Alexander as *al-Iskandar al-Maqdūnī*)." } ] }, { "id": "macedon-jewish-babylonian-aramaic-muqdon", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/macedon#jewish-babylonian-aramaic-muqdon", "civilization": "macedon", "language": "jewish-babylonian-aramaic", "original_text": "מוקדון", "transliteration": "Mūqdōn", "ipa": "/muqˈdoːn/", "literal_meaning": "Macedon (in \"Alexander of Macedon\")", "family": "makedon", "derived_from": null, "era_start": 200, "era_end": 700, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Sokoloff, Michael. *A Dictionary of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic*. Ramat-Gan: Bar Ilan University Press, 2002, s.v. מוקדון." }, { "citation": "Babylonian Talmud, b. *Tamid* 31b–32b (the legends of Alexander of Macedon); b. *Sanhedrin* 91a." } ] }, { "id": "macedon-latin-macedo", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/macedon#latin-macedo", "civilization": "macedon", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Macedō", "transliteration": "Macedō", "ipa": "/ˈma.ke.doː/", "literal_meaning": "a Macedonian; Macedon", "family": "makedon", "derived_from": "macedon-ancient-greek-makedon", "era_start": -200, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Macedō*, *Macedonicus*." }, { "citation": "Livy, *Ab Urbe Condita* 31–45 (the Macedonian Wars)." } ] }, { "id": "macedonia-ancient-greek-makedonia", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/macedonia#ancient-greek-makedonia", "civilization": "macedonia", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Μακεδονία", "transliteration": "Makedonía", "ipa": "/ma.ke.doˈni.a/", "literal_meaning": "Macedonia (the land of the Macedonians)", "family": "makedonia", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -700, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. Μακεδονία." }, { "citation": "Herodotus, *Histories* 7.127; Thucydides, *History* 2.99–100." } ] }, { "id": "macedonia-classical-arabic-maqaduniya", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/macedonia#classical-arabic-maqaduniya", "civilization": "macedonia", "language": "classical-arabic", "original_text": "مقدونية", "transliteration": "Maqadūniya", "ipa": "/ma.qaˈduː.ni.ja/", "literal_meaning": "Macedonia", "family": "makedonia", "derived_from": "macedonia-syriac-maqedoniya", "era_start": 700, "era_end": 1300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "al-Masʿūdī, *Murūj al-dhahab*; al-Ṭabarī, *Taʾrīkh al-rusul wa-l-mulūk* (the land of *Maqadūniya*, homeland of *al-Iskandar al-Maqdūnī*)." } ] }, { "id": "macedonia-latin-macedonia", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/macedonia#latin-macedonia", "civilization": "macedonia", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Macedonia", "transliteration": "Macedonia", "ipa": "/ma.keˈdo.ni.a/", "literal_meaning": "Macedonia (the Roman province)", "family": "makedonia", "derived_from": "macedonia-ancient-greek-makedonia", "era_start": -200, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Macedonia*." }, { "citation": "Livy, *Ab Urbe Condita* 45.29 (the settlement of 167 BCE); the province established 146 BCE." } ] }, { "id": "macedonia-old-persian-skudra", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/macedonia#old-persian-skudra", "civilization": "macedonia", "language": "old-persian", "original_text": "𐎿𐎤𐎢𐎭𐎼", "transliteration": "Skudra", "ipa": "*skudra", "literal_meaning": "Skudra (the Achaemenid satrapy of Thrace and Macedonia)", "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": -513, "era_end": -479, "confidence": "disputed", "sources": [ { "citation": "Kent, Roland G. *Old Persian: Grammar, Texts, Lexicon*. 2nd ed. New Haven: American Oriental Society, 1950, s.v. *Skudra*." }, { "citation": "Behistun and the royal tomb inscriptions (DNa, DSe, XPh), satrapy lists; cf. Schmitt, *Wörterbuch der altpersischen Königsinschriften*." } ] }, { "id": "macedonia-syriac-maqedoniya", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/macedonia#syriac-maqedoniya", "civilization": "macedonia", "language": "syriac", "original_text": "ܡܩܕܘܢܝܐ", "transliteration": "Maqedōniyā", "ipa": "/ma.qe.ðoːˈni.jaː/", "literal_meaning": "Macedonia", "family": "makedonia", "derived_from": "macedonia-ancient-greek-makedonia", "era_start": 150, "era_end": 700, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Peshitta, Acts 16:9–12 (Paul's vision of the man of Macedonia)." }, { "citation": "Payne Smith, R. *Thesaurus Syriacus*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879–1901, s.v. ܡܩܕܘܢܝܐ." } ] }, { "id": "magna-graecia-ancient-greek-megale-hellas", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/magna-graecia#ancient-greek-megale-hellas", "civilization": "magna-graecia", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Μεγάλη Ἑλλάς", "transliteration": "Megálē Hellás", "ipa": "/me.ˈɡa.lɛː hel.ˈlas/", "literal_meaning": "Great Greece", "family": "magna-graecia", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -500, "era_end": 200, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Polybius, *Histories* 2.39; Strabo, *Geography* 6.1.2 (the name and its prosperity)." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. Ἑλλάς." } ] }, { "id": "magna-graecia-latin-magna-graecia", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/magna-graecia#latin-magna-graecia", "civilization": "magna-graecia", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Magna Graecia", "transliteration": "Magna Graecia", "ipa": "/ˈmaɡ.na ˈɡrae̯.ki.a/", "literal_meaning": "Great Greece", "family": "magna-graecia", "derived_from": "magna-graecia-ancient-greek-megale-hellas", "era_start": -100, "era_end": 500, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Cicero, *De Oratore* 2.154, *Tusculan Disputations* 1.16.38; Livy 31.7; Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Graecia* (Magna Graecia)." } ] }, { "id": "mediterranean-akkadian-tamtu-elitu", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/mediterranean#akkadian-tamtu-elitu", "civilization": "mediterranean", "language": "akkadian", "original_text": "𒀀𒀊𒁀", "transliteration": "tâmtu elītu", "ipa": "/ˈtaːmtu eˈliːtu/", "literal_meaning": "the Upper Sea", "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": -2300, "era_end": -600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Chicago Assyrian Dictionary* (CAD), University of Chicago, Vol. T, s.v. *tâmtu*; Vol. E, s.v. *elû*." }, { "citation": "Assyrian royal inscriptions (e.g. Sargon II, Sennacherib: reaching *tâmtu elītu*, the Upper Sea)." } ] }, { "id": "mediterranean-ancient-greek-megale-thalassa", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/mediterranean#ancient-greek-megale-thalassa", "civilization": "mediterranean", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "ἡ μεγάλη θάλασσα", "transliteration": "hē Megálē Thálassa", "ipa": "/hɛː me.ɡa.lɛː ˈtʰa.las.sa/", "literal_meaning": "the Great Sea (also simply \"the sea\")", "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": -500, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Septuagint, Numbers 34:6; Joshua 1:4 (ἡ θάλασσα ἡ μεγάλη)." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. *θάλασσα*." } ] }, { "id": "mediterranean-biblical-hebrew-yam-gadol", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/mediterranean#biblical-hebrew-yam-gadol", "civilization": "mediterranean", "language": "biblical-hebrew", "original_text": "הַיָּם הַגָּדוֹל", "transliteration": "ha-Yām ha-Gādōl", "ipa": "/hajˈjaːm hagːaːˈðoːl/", "literal_meaning": "the Great Sea", "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": -900, "era_end": -200, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Numbers 34:6–7; Joshua 1:4, 9:1, 15:12; Ezekiel 47:10, 47:15." }, { "citation": "*Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament* (HALOT), Leiden: Brill, 1994–2000, s.v. *yām*." } ] }, { "id": "mediterranean-classical-arabic-bahr-al-rum", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/mediterranean#classical-arabic-bahr-al-rum", "civilization": "mediterranean", "language": "classical-arabic", "original_text": "بحر الروم", "transliteration": "Baḥr al-Rūm", "ipa": "/baħr arˈruːm/", "literal_meaning": "the Sea of the Romans (the Byzantines)", "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": 700, "era_end": 1300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "al-Masʿūdī. *Murūj al-dhahab*; al-Muqaddasī. *Aḥsan al-taqāsīm*." }, { "citation": "Yāqūt al-Ḥamawī. *Muʿjam al-Buldān*, s.v. بحر الروم." } ] }, { "id": "mediterranean-egyptian-wadjwer", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/mediterranean#egyptian-wadjwer", "civilization": "mediterranean", "language": "egyptian", "original_text": "𓇆𓅨𓂋𓈘", "transliteration": "Wꜣḏ-wr", "ipa": "*waːɟ.wir", "literal_meaning": "the Great Green", "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": -2000, "era_end": -1300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Erman, Adolf, and Hermann Grapow. *Wörterbuch der ägyptischen Sprache*. Leipzig: J. C. Hinrichs, 1926–1953, s.v. *wꜣḏ-wr*." }, { "citation": "Vandersleyen, Claude. *Ouadj our: un autre aspect de la vallée du Nil*. Brussels: Connaissance de l'Égypte ancienne, 1999." } ] }, { "id": "mediterranean-latin-mare-mediterraneum", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/mediterranean#latin-mare-mediterraneum", "civilization": "mediterranean", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Mare Mediterrāneum", "transliteration": "Mare Mediterrāneum", "ipa": "/ˈma.re me.di.ter.ˈraː.ne.um/", "literal_meaning": "the sea in the middle of the lands", "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": 200, "era_end": 700, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Solinus, *Collectanea rerum memorabilium*; Isidore of Seville, *Etymologiae* 13.16." }, { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *mediterraneus*." } ] }, { "id": "mediterranean-latin-mare-nostrum", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/mediterranean#latin-mare-nostrum", "civilization": "mediterranean", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Mare Nostrum", "transliteration": "Mare Nostrum", "ipa": "/ˈma.re ˈnos.trum/", "literal_meaning": "Our Sea", "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": -50, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Sallust, *Bellum Iugurthinum* 17; Caesar, *Bellum Gallicum* 5.1." }, { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *mare*." } ] }, { "id": "memphis-akkadian-mempi", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/memphis#akkadian-mempi", "civilization": "memphis", "language": "akkadian", "original_text": "𒌷𒈨𒅎𒉿", "transliteration": "Mempi", "ipa": "/ˈmempi/", "literal_meaning": "Memphis", "family": "mennefer", "derived_from": "memphis-egyptian-mennefer", "era_start": -680, "era_end": -630, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Onasch, Hans-Ulrich. *Die assyrischen Eroberungen Ägyptens*. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1994." }, { "citation": "Leichty, Erle. *The Royal Inscriptions of Esarhaddon, King of Assyria (680–669 BC)*. Royal Inscriptions of the Neo-Assyrian Period 4. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 2011." } ] }, { "id": "memphis-ancient-greek-memphis", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/memphis#ancient-greek-memphis", "civilization": "memphis", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Μέμφις", "transliteration": "Memphis", "ipa": "/ˈmem.pʰis/", "literal_meaning": "Memphis", "family": "mennefer", "derived_from": "memphis-egyptian-mennefer", "era_start": -500, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Herodotus, *Histories* 2.3, 2.99, 2.112–154." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. *Μέμφις*." } ] }, { "id": "memphis-biblical-hebrew-moph", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/memphis#biblical-hebrew-moph", "civilization": "memphis", "language": "biblical-hebrew", "original_text": "מֹף", "transliteration": "Mōph", "ipa": "/moːf/", "literal_meaning": "Memphis", "family": "mennefer", "derived_from": "memphis-egyptian-mennefer", "era_start": -750, "era_end": -700, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament* (HALOT), Leiden: Brill, 1994–2000, s.v. *mōp*." }, { "citation": "Hosea 9:6." } ] }, { "id": "memphis-biblical-hebrew-noph", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/memphis#biblical-hebrew-noph", "civilization": "memphis", "language": "biblical-hebrew", "original_text": "נֹף", "transliteration": "Nōph", "ipa": "/noːf/", "literal_meaning": "Memphis", "family": "mennefer", "derived_from": "memphis-egyptian-mennefer", "era_start": -700, "era_end": -400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament* (HALOT), Leiden: Brill, 1994–2000, s.v. *nōp*." }, { "citation": "Isaiah 19:13; Jeremiah 2:16, 44:1, 46:14, 46:19; Ezekiel 30:13, 30:16." } ] }, { "id": "memphis-classical-arabic-manf", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/memphis#classical-arabic-manf", "civilization": "memphis", "language": "classical-arabic", "original_text": "منف", "transliteration": "Manf", "ipa": "/manf/", "literal_meaning": "Memphis (the ruins at Mīt Rahīna)", "family": "mennefer", "derived_from": "memphis-coptic-memfi", "era_start": 700, "era_end": 1300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Yāqūt al-Ḥamawī. *Muʿjam al-Buldān*, s.v. منف." }, { "citation": "Timm, Stefan. *Das christliche-koptische Ägypten in arabischer Zeit*. Wiesbaden: Reichert, 1984–1992." } ] }, { "id": "memphis-coptic-memfi", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/memphis#coptic-memfi", "civilization": "memphis", "language": "coptic", "original_text": "ⲙⲉⲙϥⲓ", "transliteration": "Memfi", "ipa": "/ˈmɛmfi/", "literal_meaning": "Memphis", "family": "mennefer", "derived_from": "memphis-egyptian-mennefer", "era_start": 200, "era_end": 1300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Crum, W. E. *A Coptic Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1939, s.v. ⲙⲉⲙϥⲓ." }, { "citation": "Timm, Stefan. *Das christliche-koptische Ägypten in arabischer Zeit*. Wiesbaden: Reichert, 1984–1992, s.v. *Memphis*." } ] }, { "id": "memphis-demotic-menfe", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/memphis#demotic-menfe", "civilization": "memphis", "language": "demotic", "original_text": "", "transliteration": "Mnfy", "ipa": "*ˈmənfɛ", "literal_meaning": "Memphis", "family": "mennefer", "derived_from": "memphis-egyptian-mennefer", "era_start": -650, "era_end": 450, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Erichsen, Wolja. *Demotisches Glossar*. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard, 1954, s.v. *Mn-nfr*." }, { "citation": "*Chicago Demotic Dictionary*. Oriental Institute, University of Chicago." } ] }, { "id": "memphis-egyptian-hutkaptah", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/memphis#egyptian-hutkaptah", "civilization": "memphis", "language": "egyptian", "original_text": "𓉗𓂓𓊪𓏏𓎛", "transliteration": "Ḥwt-kꜣ-Ptḥ", "ipa": null, "literal_meaning": "Mansion of the ka of Ptah", "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": -2600, "era_end": -1300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Gauthier, Henri. *Dictionnaire des noms géographiques contenus dans les textes hiéroglyphiques*. Cairo: IFAO, 1925–1931, s.v. *Ḥwt-kꜣ-Ptḥ*." }, { "citation": "Beekes, Robert. *Etymological Dictionary of Greek*. Leiden: Brill, 2010, s.v. *Aígyptos*." }, { "citation": "Erman, Adolf, and Hermann Grapow. *Wörterbuch der ägyptischen Sprache*. Leipzig: J. C. Hinrichs, 1926–1953, s.v. *Ḥwt-kꜣ-Ptḥ*." } ] }, { "id": "memphis-egyptian-inbuhedj", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/memphis#egyptian-inbuhedj", "civilization": "memphis", "language": "egyptian", "original_text": "𓊅𓌉", "transliteration": "Inbw-ḥḏ", "ipa": null, "literal_meaning": "White Walls", "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": -3100, "era_end": -2200, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Gauthier, Henri. *Dictionnaire des noms géographiques contenus dans les textes hiéroglyphiques*. Cairo: IFAO, 1925–1931, s.v. *Inb-ḥḏ*." }, { "citation": "Gardiner, Alan. *Ancient Egyptian Onomastica*. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1947." } ] }, { "id": "memphis-egyptian-mennefer", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/memphis#egyptian-mennefer", "civilization": "memphis", "language": "egyptian", "original_text": "𓏠𓈖𓄤𓆑𓂋𓊖", "transliteration": "Mn-nfr", "ipa": null, "literal_meaning": "enduring and beautiful", "family": "mennefer", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -2300, "era_end": -1300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Gauthier, Henri. *Dictionnaire des noms géographiques contenus dans les textes hiéroglyphiques*. Cairo: IFAO, 1925–1931, s.v. *Mn-nfr*." }, { "citation": "Gardiner, Alan. *Ancient Egyptian Onomastica*. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1947." }, { "citation": "Erman, Adolf, and Hermann Grapow. *Wörterbuch der ägyptischen Sprache*. Leipzig: J. C. Hinrichs, 1926–1953, s.v. *Mn-nfr*." } ] }, { "id": "memphis-imperial-aramaic-mnpy", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/memphis#imperial-aramaic-mnpy", "civilization": "memphis", "language": "imperial-aramaic", "original_text": "מנפי", "transliteration": "Mnpy", "ipa": "*manˈpi", "literal_meaning": "Memphis", "family": "mennefer", "derived_from": "memphis-egyptian-mennefer", "era_start": -500, "era_end": -400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Porten, Bezalel, and Ada Yardeni. *Textbook of Aramaic Documents from Ancient Egypt* (TADAE). Jerusalem, 1986–1999 (the Hermopolis letters, written by Aramaeans resident near Memphis)." }, { "citation": "Porten, Bezalel. *Archives from Elephantine*. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1968." } ] }, { "id": "memphis-latin-memphis", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/memphis#latin-memphis", "civilization": "memphis", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Memphis", "transliteration": "Memphis", "ipa": "/ˈmem.pʰis/", "literal_meaning": "Memphis", "family": "mennefer", "derived_from": "memphis-ancient-greek-memphis", "era_start": -50, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Memphis*." }, { "citation": "Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 5.50." }, { "citation": "Virgil, *Georgics* 3.139 (adjective *Memphītis*)." } ] }, { "id": "memphis-syriac-mefes", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/memphis#syriac-mefes", "civilization": "memphis", "language": "syriac", "original_text": "ܡܦܣ", "transliteration": "Mefes", "ipa": "/ˈmɛfɛs/", "literal_meaning": "Memphis", "family": "mennefer", "derived_from": "memphis-ancient-greek-memphis", "era_start": 150, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Peshitta, Hosea 9:6 (ܡܦܣ)." }, { "citation": "Payne Smith, R. *Thesaurus Syriacus*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879–1901." } ] }, { "id": "mesopotamia-ancient-greek-mesopotamia", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/mesopotamia#ancient-greek-mesopotamia", "civilization": "mesopotamia", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Μεσοποταμία", "transliteration": "Mesopotamía", "ipa": "/me.so.po.taˈmi.a/", "literal_meaning": "(the land) between the rivers", "family": "mesopotamia", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -330, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. *Μεσοποταμία*." }, { "citation": "Polybius, *Histories* 5; Strabo, *Geography* 2, 16; Arrian, *Anabasis*." } ] }, { "id": "mesopotamia-biblical-hebrew-aramnaharaim", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/mesopotamia#biblical-hebrew-aramnaharaim", "civilization": "mesopotamia", "language": "biblical-hebrew", "original_text": "אֲרַם נַהֲרַיִם", "transliteration": "ʾĂram Naharayim", "ipa": "/ʔaˈram nahaˈrajim/", "literal_meaning": "Aram of the two rivers", "family": "naharin", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -900, "era_end": -100, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament* (HALOT), Leiden: Brill, 1994–2000, s.v. *ʾaram naharayim*." }, { "citation": "Genesis 24:10; Deuteronomy 23:5; Judges 3:8; Psalm 60 (title)." } ] }, { "id": "mesopotamia-classical-arabic-jazira", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/mesopotamia#classical-arabic-jazira", "civilization": "mesopotamia", "language": "classical-arabic", "original_text": "الجزيرة", "transliteration": "al-Jazīra", "ipa": "/al.dʒaˈziː.ra/", "literal_meaning": "the island (the land enclosed between the two rivers)", "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": 700, "era_end": 1400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Yāqūt al-Ḥamawī. *Muʿjam al-Buldān*, s.v. الجزيرة." }, { "citation": "al-Muqaddasī. *Aḥsan al-Taqāsīm fī Maʿrifat al-Aqālīm*, 10th c." } ] }, { "id": "mesopotamia-latin-mesopotamia", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/mesopotamia#latin-mesopotamia", "civilization": "mesopotamia", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Mesopotamia", "transliteration": "Mesopotamia", "ipa": "/me.so.poˈta.mi.a/", "literal_meaning": "Mesopotamia (from Greek, \"between the rivers\")", "family": "mesopotamia", "derived_from": "mesopotamia-ancient-greek-mesopotamia", "era_start": -50, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Mesopotamia*." }, { "citation": "Tacitus, *Annals* 6; Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 5–6." } ] }, { "id": "mesopotamia-syriac-bethnahrin", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/mesopotamia#syriac-bethnahrin", "civilization": "mesopotamia", "language": "syriac", "original_text": "ܒܝܬ ܢܗܪܝܢ", "transliteration": "Bēth Nahrīn", "ipa": "/beːθ nahˈrin/", "literal_meaning": "the house (land) of the rivers", "family": "naharin", "derived_from": null, "era_start": 150, "era_end": 1000, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Payne Smith, R. *Thesaurus Syriacus*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879–1901, s.v. ܢܗܪܝܢ." }, { "citation": "Syriac historiography (e.g. the Chronicle of Michael the Syrian); the Peshitta." } ] }, { "id": "miletus-ancient-greek-miletos", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/miletus#ancient-greek-miletos", "civilization": "miletus", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Μίλητος", "transliteration": "Mílētos", "ipa": "/ˈmi.lɛː.tos/", "literal_meaning": "Miletus", "family": "miletos", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1000, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Herodotus, *Histories* 5.28–38 (the Ionian Revolt begins at Miletus); Strabo, *Geography* 14.1.6." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. Μίλητος." } ] }, { "id": "miletus-hittite-milawanda", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/miletus#hittite-milawanda", "civilization": "miletus", "language": "hittite", "original_text": "𒌷𒈪𒆷𒉿𒀭𒁕", "transliteration": "Milawanda", "ipa": "*milaˈwanda", "literal_meaning": "Milawanda (the Aḫḫiyawa-aligned coast city, identified with Miletus)", "family": "miletos", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1400, "era_end": -1200, "confidence": "disputed", "sources": [ { "citation": "Beckman, Gary, Trevor Bryce, and Eric Cline. *The Ahhiyawa Texts*. Atlanta: SBL Press, 2011 (the Tawagalawa and Milawata letters)." }, { "citation": "Bryce, Trevor. *The Kingdom of the Hittites*. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005." } ] }, { "id": "miletus-latin-miletus", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/miletus#latin-miletus", "civilization": "miletus", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Miletus", "transliteration": "Mīlētus", "ipa": "/miːˈleː.tus/", "literal_meaning": "Miletus", "family": "miletos", "derived_from": "miletus-ancient-greek-miletos", "era_start": -200, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 5.31.112; Pomponius Mela, *De Chorographia* 1.17; Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Miletus*." } ] }, { "id": "miletus-mycenaean-greek-mi-ra-ti-ja", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/miletus#mycenaean-greek-mi-ra-ti-ja", "civilization": "miletus", "language": "mycenaean-greek", "original_text": "𐀖𐀨𐀴𐀊", "transliteration": "mi-ra-ti-ja", "ipa": "*milaːtiai", "literal_meaning": "the Milesian women (Miletus, named through its people)", "family": "miletos", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1300, "era_end": -1200, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Pylos Linear B tablets PY Aa 798, Ab 573 (the *mi-ra-ti-ja*, women named by origin); Ventris, Michael, and John Chadwick. *Documents in Mycenaean Greek*. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1973." }, { "citation": "Chadwick, John. *The Mycenaean World*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976 (the women of Pylos)." } ] }, { "id": "minoan-crete-akkadian-kaptara", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/minoan-crete#akkadian-kaptara", "civilization": "minoan-crete", "language": "akkadian", "original_text": "𒆏𒋫𒊏", "transliteration": "Kaptara", "ipa": "*kaptara", "literal_meaning": "Kaptara (a distant land across the sea, generally identified with Crete)", "family": "kaphtor", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1800, "era_end": -1700, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Chicago Assyrian Dictionary* (CAD), s.v. *Kaptaru / kaptarû*." }, { "citation": "Dossin, Georges. \"Les archives économiques du palais de Mari.\" *Syria* 20 (1939) (the man of Kaptara at Mari)." } ] }, { "id": "minoan-crete-ancient-greek-krete", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/minoan-crete#ancient-greek-krete", "civilization": "minoan-crete", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Κρήτη", "transliteration": "Krḗtē", "ipa": "/ˈkrɛːtɛː/", "literal_meaning": "Crete (the island)", "family": "krete", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -800, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Homer, *Odyssey* 19.172–179 (Crete \"of ninety cities,\" the realm of Minos)." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. Κρήτη." } ] }, { "id": "minoan-crete-biblical-hebrew-kaftor", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/minoan-crete#biblical-hebrew-kaftor", "civilization": "minoan-crete", "language": "biblical-hebrew", "original_text": "כפתור", "transliteration": "Kaftor", "ipa": "/kafˈtor/", "literal_meaning": "Caphtor (the homeland of the Philistines; generally identified with Crete)", "family": "kaphtor", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -900, "era_end": -400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Genesis 10:14; Deuteronomy 2:23; Amos 9:7 (the Philistines/Caphtorim from Caphtor)." }, { "citation": "Köhler-Baumgartner, *Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament* (HALOT), s.v. כפתר." } ] }, { "id": "minoan-crete-egyptian-keftiu", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/minoan-crete#egyptian-keftiu", "civilization": "minoan-crete", "language": "egyptian", "original_text": "𓎡𓆑𓍘𓈉", "transliteration": "Keftiu", "ipa": "*kaftiːw", "literal_meaning": "Keftiu (the Aegean land, generally identified with Crete)", "family": "kaphtor", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1479, "era_end": -1350, "confidence": "disputed", "sources": [ { "citation": "Tomb of Rekhmire (TT100), in Sethe & Helck, *Urkunden der 18. Dynastie* (Urk. IV); the Kom el-Hetan list of Amenhotep III." }, { "citation": "Vercoutter, Jean. *L'Égypte et le monde égéen préhellénique*. Cairo: IFAO, 1956; *Wörterbuch der ägyptischen Sprache* V 122." } ] }, { "id": "minoan-crete-latin-creta", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/minoan-crete#latin-creta", "civilization": "minoan-crete", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Creta", "transliteration": "Creta", "ipa": "/ˈkreːta/", "literal_meaning": "Crete (the island)", "family": "krete", "derived_from": "minoan-crete-ancient-greek-krete", "era_start": -200, "era_end": 500, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Crēta*." } ] }, { "id": "minoan-crete-mycenaean-greek-ke-re-te", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/minoan-crete#mycenaean-greek-ke-re-te", "civilization": "minoan-crete", "language": "mycenaean-greek", "original_text": "𐀐𐀩𐀳", "transliteration": "ke-re-te", "ipa": "*krɛːte", "literal_meaning": "Crete (the island)", "family": "krete", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1450, "era_end": -1200, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "The Knossos Linear B tablets (the island/ethnic *ke-re-te*)." }, { "citation": "Ventris, Michael, and John Chadwick. *Documents in Mycenaean Greek*. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1973." } ] }, { "id": "minoan-crete-syriac-qrete", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/minoan-crete#syriac-qrete", "civilization": "minoan-crete", "language": "syriac", "original_text": "ܩܪܛܐ", "transliteration": "Qreṭē", "ipa": "/qreˈte/", "literal_meaning": "Crete (the island)", "family": "krete", "derived_from": "minoan-crete-ancient-greek-krete", "era_start": 150, "era_end": 700, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Peshitta, Acts 27:7, 27:12–13, 27:21 (Paul's voyage past Crete)." }, { "citation": "Payne Smith, R. *Thesaurus Syriacus*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879–1901, s.v. ܩܪܛܐ." } ] }, { "id": "minoan-crete-ugaritic-kptr", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/minoan-crete#ugaritic-kptr", "civilization": "minoan-crete", "language": "ugaritic", "original_text": "𐎋𐎔𐎚𐎗", "transliteration": "Kptr", "ipa": "*kaptaru", "literal_meaning": "Caphtor (the home of the craftsman-god; generally identified with Crete)", "family": "kaphtor", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1400, "era_end": -1190, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "del Olmo Lete, G., and J. Sanmartín. *A Dictionary of the Ugaritic Language in the Alphabetic Tradition*. Leiden: Brill, 2003, s.v. *kptr*." }, { "citation": "The Baal Cycle (KTU 1.1–1.6), the abode of Kothar-wa-Khasis." } ] }, { "id": "mitanni-akkadian-hanigalbat", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/mitanni#akkadian-hanigalbat", "civilization": "mitanni", "language": "akkadian", "original_text": "𒄩𒉌𒃲𒁁", "transliteration": "Ḫanigalbat", "ipa": "/xaniˈgalbat/", "literal_meaning": "Hanigalbat (the Assyro-Babylonian name for Mitanni; meaning disputed)", "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1500, "era_end": -1180, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Grayson, A. Kirk. *Assyrian Rulers of the Third and Second Millennia BC (to 1115 BC)*. Royal Inscriptions of Mesopotamia, Assyrian Periods 1. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1987." }, { "citation": "*Chicago Assyrian Dictionary* (CAD), University of Chicago, s.v. *Ḫanigalbat*." } ] }, { "id": "mitanni-hittite-mittani", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/mitanni#hittite-mittani", "civilization": "mitanni", "language": "hittite", "original_text": "𒈪𒋫𒀭𒉌", "transliteration": "Mittani", "ipa": "*ˈmittani", "literal_meaning": "Mitanni (the land); also called Ḫurri, \"land of the Hurrians\"", "family": "mittani", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1400, "era_end": -1300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Beckman, Gary. *Hittite Diplomatic Texts*. 2nd ed. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1999 (the Šuppiluliuma–Šattiwaza treaties, CTH 51–52)." }, { "citation": "Bryce, Trevor. *The Kingdom of the Hittites*. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005." } ] }, { "id": "mitanni-hurrian-maittani", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/mitanni#hurrian-maittani", "civilization": "mitanni", "language": "hurrian", "original_text": "𒈪𒋫𒀭𒉌", "transliteration": "Mittani", "ipa": "*ˈmittani", "literal_meaning": "Mitanni (also vocalized Maittani)", "family": "mittani", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1500, "era_end": -1300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Wilhelm, Gernot. *The Hurrians*. Warminster: Aris & Phillips, 1989." }, { "citation": "Amarna Letter EA 24 (the Mitanni Letter of Tushratta, in Hurrian); Moran, William L. *The Amarna Letters*. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992." } ] }, { "id": "mycenae-ancient-greek-mykenai", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/mycenae#ancient-greek-mykenai", "civilization": "mycenae", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Μυκῆναι", "transliteration": "Mykēnai", "ipa": "/myˈkɛː.nai/", "literal_meaning": "Mycenae", "family": "mykenai", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -800, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Homer, *Iliad* 2.569, 4.376, 7.180 (\"well-built Mycenae, rich in gold\"); *Odyssey* 3.305." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. Μυκῆναι." } ] }, { "id": "mycenae-latin-mycenae", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/mycenae#latin-mycenae", "civilization": "mycenae", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Mycēnae", "transliteration": "Mycēnae", "ipa": "/myˈkeː.nae̯/", "literal_meaning": "Mycenae", "family": "mykenai", "derived_from": "mycenae-ancient-greek-mykenai", "era_start": -200, "era_end": 500, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Mycēnae*." } ] }, { "id": "neapolis-ancient-greek-neapolis", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/neapolis#ancient-greek-neapolis", "civilization": "neapolis", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Νεάπολις", "transliteration": "Neápolis", "ipa": "/ne.ˈa.po.lis/", "literal_meaning": "new city (néos + pólis)", "family": "neapolis", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -470, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Strabo, *Geography* 5.4.7 (Neapolis and the older Parthenope/Palaepolis); Thucydides." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. Νεάπολις." } ] }, { "id": "neapolis-ancient-greek-parthenope", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/neapolis#ancient-greek-parthenope", "civilization": "neapolis", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Παρθενόπη", "transliteration": "Parthenópē", "ipa": "/par.the.ˈno.pɛː/", "literal_meaning": "Parthenope (the Siren; the older name of Naples)", "family": "parthenope", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -680, "era_end": -470, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Strabo, *Geography* 5.4.7; Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 3.62 (Naples \"formerly called Parthenope\")." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. Παρθενόπη." } ] }, { "id": "neapolis-latin-neapolis", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/neapolis#latin-neapolis", "civilization": "neapolis", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Neapolis", "transliteration": "Neapolis", "ipa": "/ne.ˈaː.po.lis/", "literal_meaning": "Neapolis (Naples)", "family": "neapolis", "derived_from": "neapolis-ancient-greek-neapolis", "era_start": -300, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Livy, *Ab Urbe Condita* 8.22–26; Cicero; Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Neapolis*." } ] }, { "id": "nile-ancient-greek-neilos", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/nile#ancient-greek-neilos", "civilization": "nile", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Νεῖλος", "transliteration": "Neîlos", "ipa": "/nêː.los/", "literal_meaning": "the Nile (etymology uncertain)", "family": "neilos", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -700, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Beekes, Robert. *Etymological Dictionary of Greek*. Brill, 2010, s.v. Νεῖλος." }, { "citation": "Herodotus, *Histories* 2.10-34 (extended discussion of the Nile)." }, { "citation": "Vycichl, Werner. *Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue copte*. Peeters, 1983, s.v." } ] }, { "id": "nile-biblical-hebrew-yeor", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/nile#biblical-hebrew-yeor", "civilization": "nile", "language": "biblical-hebrew", "original_text": "יְאֹר", "transliteration": "Yeʾōr", "ipa": "/jəˈʔoːr/", "literal_meaning": "the Nile; the river (from Egyptian jtrw)", "family": "jtrw", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -900, "era_end": -100, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament* (HALOT), Leiden: Brill, 1994–2000, s.v. *yeʾōr*." }, { "citation": "Lambdin, Thomas O. \"Egyptian Loan Words in the Old Testament.\" *Journal of the American Oriental Society* 73 (1953), pp. 145–155." }, { "citation": "Genesis 41:1–3; Exodus 1:22, 2:3, 7:15–21." } ] }, { "id": "nile-classical-arabic-nil", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/nile#classical-arabic-nil", "civilization": "nile", "language": "classical-arabic", "original_text": "النيل", "transliteration": "al-Nīl", "ipa": "/anˈniːl/", "literal_meaning": "the Nile (from Greek Neîlos)", "family": "neilos", "derived_from": "nile-ancient-greek-neilos", "era_start": 600, "era_end": 1300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Lane, Edward William. *An Arabic-English Lexicon*. London: Williams and Norgate, 1863–1893, s.v. نيل." }, { "citation": "Yāqūt al-Ḥamawī. *Muʿjam al-Buldān*, s.v. النيل." } ] }, { "id": "nile-coptic-eioor", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/nile#coptic-eioor", "civilization": "nile", "language": "coptic", "original_text": "ⲉⲓⲟⲟⲣ", "transliteration": "Eioor", "ipa": "/ˈejoːr/", "literal_meaning": "the river; the Nile (from Egyptian jtrw)", "family": "jtrw", "derived_from": null, "era_start": 300, "era_end": 1000, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Crum, W. E. *A Coptic Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1939, s.v. ⲉⲓⲟⲟⲣ." }, { "citation": "Vycichl, Werner. *Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue copte*. Leuven: Peeters, 1983, s.v. ⲉⲓⲟⲟⲣ." } ] }, { "id": "nile-egyptian-hapy", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/nile#egyptian-hapy", "civilization": "nile", "language": "egyptian", "original_text": "𓎛𓂝𓊪𓇋", "transliteration": "Ḥꜥpy", "ipa": "*ħaʕpij", "literal_meaning": "Hapi (the divinized inundation)", "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": -2000, "era_end": -300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Hannig, Rainer. *Großes Handwörterbuch Ägyptisch-Deutsch (2800-950 v. Chr.)*. von Zabern, 1995, s.v." }, { "citation": "Erman, Adolf, and Hermann Grapow. *Wörterbuch der ägyptischen Sprache*. Akademie-Verlag, 1926-1961, vol. III, p. 42." } ] }, { "id": "nile-geez-gihon", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/nile#geez-gihon", "civilization": "nile", "language": "geez", "original_text": "ግዮን", "transliteration": "Giyon", "ipa": "/ɡɨˈjon/", "literal_meaning": "the Nile (identified with the biblical Gihon)", "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": 350, "era_end": 1000, "confidence": "disputed", "sources": [ { "citation": "Leslau, Wolf. *Comparative Dictionary of Geʿez (Classical Ethiopic)*. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1987, s.v. *Giyon*." }, { "citation": "Genesis 2:13 (Geʿez version)." }, { "citation": "*Encyclopaedia Aethiopica*, ed. Siegbert Uhlig. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2005, s.v. *Gihon*." } ] }, { "id": "nile-latin-nilus", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/nile#latin-nilus", "civilization": "nile", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Nilus", "transliteration": "Nīlus", "ipa": "/ˈniː.lus/", "literal_meaning": "the Nile (from Greek)", "family": "neilos", "derived_from": "nile-ancient-greek-neilos", "era_start": -200, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Lewis and Short, *A Latin Dictionary*. Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. 'Nilus.'" }, { "citation": "Vergil, *Aeneid* 6.800, 9.31." } ] }, { "id": "nineveh-akkadian-ninua", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/nineveh#akkadian-ninua", "civilization": "nineveh", "language": "akkadian", "original_text": "𒌷𒉌𒉡𒀀", "transliteration": "Ninua", "ipa": "/ninuˈwa/", "literal_meaning": "Nineveh (the logogram pictures a fish within a house; origin possibly Hurrian)", "family": "ninua", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -2500, "era_end": -612, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Reallexikon der Assyriologie und Vorderasiatischen Archäologie*, s.v. *Ninua*, *Ninwe*." }, { "citation": "*Chicago Assyrian Dictionary* (CAD), University of Chicago, Vol. N." }, { "citation": "Reade, Julian. *Assyrian Sculpture*. London: British Museum Press, 1983." } ] }, { "id": "nineveh-ancient-greek-nineue", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/nineveh#ancient-greek-nineue", "civilization": "nineveh", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Νινευή", "transliteration": "Nineuē", "ipa": "/ni.neuˈɛː/", "literal_meaning": "Nineveh, the Septuagint transliteration of Hebrew Nīnəwēh", "family": "ninua", "derived_from": "nineveh-biblical-hebrew-ninveh", "era_start": -250, "era_end": 100, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Septuagint, Jonah 1:2, 3:2–7; Nahum 1:1; Genesis 10:11 (Νινευή)." }, { "citation": "Gospel of Luke 11:30, 11:32 (Νινευῖται, \"the men of Nineveh\")." } ] }, { "id": "nineveh-ancient-greek-ninos", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/nineveh#ancient-greek-ninos", "civilization": "nineveh", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Νίνος", "transliteration": "Ninos", "ipa": "/ˈni.nos/", "literal_meaning": "Nineveh, personified as its legendary founder-king Ninos", "family": "ninua", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -400, "era_end": 200, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Ctesias, *Persica*, in Diodorus Siculus, *Bibliotheca historica* 2.1–28." }, { "citation": "Herodotus, *Histories* 1.7, 2.150 (Νίνος, the city)." }, { "citation": "Strabo, *Geography* 16.1.1–3." } ] }, { "id": "nineveh-biblical-hebrew-ninveh", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/nineveh#biblical-hebrew-ninveh", "civilization": "nineveh", "language": "biblical-hebrew", "original_text": "נִינְוֵה", "transliteration": "Nīnəwēh", "ipa": "/niːnəˈveh/", "literal_meaning": "Nineveh", "family": "ninua", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -700, "era_end": -200, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament* (HALOT), Leiden: Brill, 1994–2000, s.v. *nînəwēh*." }, { "citation": "Genesis 10:11; Jonah 1:2, 3:2–4:11; Nahum 1:1, 2:8; Zephaniah 2:13." } ] }, { "id": "nineveh-classical-arabic-naynawa", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/nineveh#classical-arabic-naynawa", "civilization": "nineveh", "language": "classical-arabic", "original_text": "نينوى", "transliteration": "Naynawā", "ipa": "/najnaˈwaː/", "literal_meaning": "Nineveh (the ruins opposite Mosul)", "family": "ninua", "derived_from": "nineveh-syriac-ninwe", "era_start": 700, "era_end": 1300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Yāqūt al-Ḥamawī. *Muʿjam al-Buldān*, s.v. نينوى." }, { "citation": "Le Strange, Guy. *The Lands of the Eastern Caliphate*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1905." } ] }, { "id": "nineveh-geez-nanawe", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/nineveh#geez-nanawe", "civilization": "nineveh", "language": "geez", "original_text": "ነነዌ", "transliteration": "Nanawē", "ipa": "/nanaˈweː/", "literal_meaning": "Nineveh", "family": "ninua", "derived_from": "nineveh-ancient-greek-nineue", "era_start": 350, "era_end": 700, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Ethiopic Old Testament, Jonah (Book of the Twelve Prophets)." }, { "citation": "Dillmann, August. *Lexicon Linguae Aethiopicae*. Leipzig: Weigel, 1865." } ] }, { "id": "nineveh-jewish-babylonian-aramaic-ninwe", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/nineveh#jewish-babylonian-aramaic-ninwe", "civilization": "nineveh", "language": "jewish-babylonian-aramaic", "original_text": "נינוה", "transliteration": "Ninwe", "ipa": "/niːnˈweː/", "literal_meaning": "Nineveh", "family": "ninua", "derived_from": null, "era_start": 200, "era_end": 700, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Sokoloff, Michael. *A Dictionary of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic*. Ramat-Gan: Bar Ilan University Press, 2002, s.v. נינוה." }, { "citation": "Babylonian Talmud, b. *Taʿanit* 14b–15a (the men of Nineveh and prayer in time of drought)." } ] }, { "id": "nineveh-latin-ninive", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/nineveh#latin-ninive", "civilization": "nineveh", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Ninivē", "transliteration": "Ninivē", "ipa": "/ˈni.ni.weː/", "literal_meaning": "Nineveh (the city of scripture)", "family": "ninua", "derived_from": "nineveh-ancient-greek-nineue", "era_start": 50, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Jerome, *Vulgata*, Jonah 1:2, 3:2–7; Nahum 1:1; Genesis 10:11 (*Ninive*, *Nineve*)." }, { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Ninive*, *Ninus*." } ] }, { "id": "nineveh-latin-ninus", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/nineveh#latin-ninus", "civilization": "nineveh", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Ninus", "transliteration": "Ninus", "ipa": "/ˈni.nus/", "literal_meaning": "Nineveh, as the founder-king Ninus of the Latin historians", "family": "ninua", "derived_from": "nineveh-ancient-greek-ninos", "era_start": -50, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Justin, *Epitoma Historiarum Philippicarum Pompei Trogi* 1.1–2." }, { "citation": "Orosius, *Historiae adversus paganos* 1.4, 2.2–3." }, { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Ninus*." } ] }, { "id": "nineveh-sumerian-nina", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/nineveh#sumerian-nina", "civilization": "nineveh", "language": "sumerian", "original_text": "𒀏", "transliteration": "Nina", "ipa": null, "literal_meaning": "Nineveh (the logogram of a fish within a house)", "family": "ninua", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -2300, "era_end": -1700, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*The Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary* (ePSD2), s.v. *Nina* / *Ninua* (place name)." }, { "citation": "*Reallexikon der Assyriologie und Vorderasiatischen Archäologie*, s.v. *Ninua*." } ] }, { "id": "nineveh-syriac-ninwe", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/nineveh#syriac-ninwe", "civilization": "nineveh", "language": "syriac", "original_text": "ܢܝܢܘܐ", "transliteration": "Nīnwē", "ipa": "/ˈniːnwɛ/", "literal_meaning": "Nineveh", "family": "ninua", "derived_from": "nineveh-biblical-hebrew-ninveh", "era_start": 150, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Peshitta, Jonah 1:2, 3:2–7; Nahum 1:1 (ܢܝܢܘܐ)." }, { "citation": "Payne Smith, R. *Thesaurus Syriacus*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879–1901, s.v. ܢܝܢܘܐ." } ] }, { "id": "olympus-ancient-greek-olympos", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/olympus#ancient-greek-olympos", "civilization": "olympus", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Ὄλυμπος", "transliteration": "Ólympos", "ipa": "/ˈo.lym.pos/", "literal_meaning": "Mount Olympus", "family": "olympos", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -800, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Homer, *Iliad* 1.530–533, 5.367–369 (the seat of the gods); Hesiod, *Theogony* 37, 62; Strabo, *Geography* 9.5.5." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. Ὄλυμπος." } ] }, { "id": "olympus-latin-olympus", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/olympus#latin-olympus", "civilization": "olympus", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Olympus", "transliteration": "Olympus", "ipa": "/oˈlym.pus/", "literal_meaning": "Mount Olympus", "family": "olympos", "derived_from": "olympus-ancient-greek-olympos", "era_start": -100, "era_end": 500, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Virgil, *Aeneid* 1.374, 10.1 (Olympus as the abode of the gods); Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Olympus*." } ] }, { "id": "oxus-ancient-greek-oxos", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/oxus#ancient-greek-oxos", "civilization": "oxus", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Ὦξος", "transliteration": "Ōxos", "ipa": "/ˈɔːk.sos/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "vaxshu", "derived_from": "oxus-avestan-vaxshu", "era_start": -330, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Arrian, *Anabasis* 3.28–30; Strabo, *Geographica* 11.7.3, 11.11.5." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. Ὦξος." } ] }, { "id": "oxus-avestan-vaxshu", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/oxus#avestan-vaxshu", "civilization": "oxus", "language": "avestan", "original_text": "𐬬𐬀𐬑𐬱𐬏", "transliteration": "Vaxšu", "ipa": "*ˈu̯ax.ʃu", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "vaxshu", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1000, "era_end": -300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Avesta, the river-divinity Vaxšu (cf. the Wakhsh tributary); Boyce, Mary. *A History of Zoroastrianism*, Vol. 1. Leiden: Brill, 1975." }, { "citation": "Bartholomae, Christian. *Altiranisches Wörterbuch*. Strassburg: Trübner, 1904, s.v. *vaxšu*." } ] }, { "id": "oxus-classical-arabic-jayhun", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/oxus#classical-arabic-jayhun", "civilization": "oxus", "language": "classical-arabic", "original_text": "جيحون", "transliteration": "Jayḥūn", "ipa": "/d͡ʒajˈħuːn/", "literal_meaning": "the Gihon (of Paradise)", "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": 700, "era_end": 1300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "al-Iṣṭakhrī, *Kitāb al-Masālik wa-l-Mamālik*. Ed. de Goeje, Leiden: Brill, 1870." }, { "citation": "Yāqūt al-Ḥamawī, *Muʿjam al-Buldān*. Beirut: Dār Ṣādir, 1977, s.v. جيحون." } ] }, { "id": "oxus-latin-oxus", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/oxus#latin-oxus", "civilization": "oxus", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Oxus", "transliteration": "Oxus", "ipa": "/ˈok.sus/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "vaxshu", "derived_from": "oxus-ancient-greek-oxos", "era_start": -50, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 6.18.48–49; Quintus Curtius Rufus, *Historiae Alexandri* 7.10." }, { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Oxus*." } ] }, { "id": "oxus-sanskrit-vakshu", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/oxus#sanskrit-vakshu", "civilization": "oxus", "language": "sanskrit", "original_text": "वक्षु", "transliteration": "Vakṣu", "ipa": "/ˈʋɐk.ʂu/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "vaxshu", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -300, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "The *Purāṇas* (the rivers of Jambudvīpa); *Mahābhārata*, Bhīṣmaparvan." }, { "citation": "Monier-Williams, Monier. *A Sanskrit-English Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1899, s.v. *Vakṣu*." } ] }, { "id": "parthia-akkadian-partu", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/parthia#akkadian-partu", "civilization": "parthia", "language": "akkadian", "original_text": "𒉺𒅈𒌅𒌋", "transliteration": "Partu", "ipa": "/parˈtu/", "literal_meaning": "Parthia", "family": "parthava", "derived_from": "parthia-old-persian-parthava", "era_start": -520, "era_end": -330, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Kent, Roland G. *Old Persian: Grammar, Texts, Lexicon*. 2nd ed. New Haven: American Oriental Society, 1950, s.v. *Parθava-* (Akk. *pa-ar-tu-u*)." }, { "citation": "von Voigtländer, Elizabeth N. *The Bisitun Inscription of Darius the Great: Babylonian Version*. London: Lund Humphries, 1978." } ] }, { "id": "parthia-ancient-greek-parthia", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/parthia#ancient-greek-parthia", "civilization": "parthia", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Παρθία", "transliteration": "Parthía", "ipa": "/par.ˈtʰi.a/", "literal_meaning": "Parthia (also Parthuaía; the people, Párthoi)", "family": "parthava", "derived_from": "parthia-old-persian-parthava", "era_start": -300, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Strabo, *Geography* 11.9; Polybius, *Histories* 10.28." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. *Παρθία*, *Πάρθοι*." } ] }, { "id": "parthia-classical-chinese-anxi", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/parthia#classical-chinese-anxi", "civilization": "parthia", "language": "classical-chinese", "original_text": "安息", "transliteration": "Ānxī", "ipa": null, "literal_meaning": "Parthia (a transcription of Aršak, the Arsacid dynastic name)", "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": -130, "era_end": 220, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Sima Qian, *Shiji* 123 (*Dayuan liezhuan*, Account of Dayuan)." }, { "citation": "Pulleyblank, Edwin G. *Encyclopaedia Iranica*, s.v. \"Chinese-Iranian Relations i. In Pre-Islamic Times\"." } ] }, { "id": "parthia-elamite-partuma", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/parthia#elamite-partuma", "civilization": "parthia", "language": "elamite", "original_text": "𒁇𒌅𒈠𒅁", "transliteration": "Partumaip", "ipa": "*partumaip", "literal_meaning": "Parthia (the Parthians)", "family": "parthava", "derived_from": "parthia-old-persian-parthava", "era_start": -520, "era_end": -330, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Kent, Roland G. *Old Persian: Grammar, Texts, Lexicon*. 2nd ed. New Haven: American Oriental Society, 1950, s.v. *Parθava-* (Elam. *par-tu-ma*)." }, { "citation": "Behistun inscription (DB), Elamite version, §6 (*par₂-tu-ma-ip*, \"the Parthians\")." } ] }, { "id": "parthia-latin-parthia", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/parthia#latin-parthia", "civilization": "parthia", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Parthia", "transliteration": "Parthia", "ipa": "/ˈpar.tʰi.a/", "literal_meaning": "Parthia (the people, Parthī)", "family": "parthava", "derived_from": "parthia-ancient-greek-parthia", "era_start": -100, "era_end": 500, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 6.112–113; Tacitus, *Annales* 2.1–2." }, { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Parthia*, *Parthi*." } ] }, { "id": "parthia-middle-persian-pahlaw", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/parthia#middle-persian-pahlaw", "civilization": "parthia", "language": "middle-persian", "original_text": "𐭯𐭫𐭮𐭥𐭡𐭥", "transliteration": "Pahlaw", "ipa": "/pahˈlaw/", "literal_meaning": "Parthia; the Parthian land and tradition", "family": "parthava", "derived_from": "parthia-parthian-parthaw", "era_start": 250, "era_end": 900, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "MacKenzie, D. N. *A Concise Pahlavi Dictionary*. London: Oxford University Press, 1971, s.v. *Pahlaw*." }, { "citation": "Durkin-Meisterernst, Desmond. *Dictionary of Manichaean Texts, Vol. III/1*. Turnhout: Brepols, 2004, s.v. *pahlaw*." } ] }, { "id": "parthia-old-persian-parthava", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/parthia#old-persian-parthava", "civilization": "parthia", "language": "old-persian", "original_text": "𐎱𐎼𐎰𐎺", "transliteration": "Parθava", "ipa": "/ˈpar.θa.va/", "literal_meaning": "Parthia (a dialectal variant of the same stem as Pārsa, Persia)", "family": "parthava", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -520, "era_end": -330, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Kent, Roland G. *Old Persian: Grammar, Texts, Lexicon*. 2nd ed. New Haven: American Oriental Society, 1953, s.v. *Parθava-*." }, { "citation": "Behistun inscription (DB), Old Persian version (the satrapy list, column I)." } ] }, { "id": "parthia-parthian-parthaw", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/parthia#parthian-parthaw", "civilization": "parthia", "language": "parthian", "original_text": "𐭐𐭓𐭕𐭅", "transliteration": "Parθaw", "ipa": "/parˈθaw/", "literal_meaning": "Parthia; Parthian (the self-name)", "family": "parthava", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -150, "era_end": 250, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Durkin-Meisterernst, Desmond. *Dictionary of Manichaean Texts, Vol. III/1: Dictionary of Manichaean Middle Persian and Parthian*. Turnhout: Brepols, 2004, s.v. *pahlaw*, *parθaw*." }, { "citation": "Inscriptional Parthian of the Arsacid period (legends and the trilingual tradition)." } ] }, { "id": "parthia-sanskrit-pahlava", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/parthia#sanskrit-pahlava", "civilization": "parthia", "language": "sanskrit", "original_text": "पह्लव", "transliteration": "Pahlava", "ipa": "/ˈpɐɦlɐʋɐ/", "literal_meaning": "the Parthians (the Pahlavas of Indian texts)", "family": "parthava", "derived_from": "parthia-middle-persian-pahlaw", "era_start": -150, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Monier-Williams, Monier. *A Sanskrit-English Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1899, s.v. *pahlava*." }, { "citation": "Sanskrit epigraphic and epic usage (the *Pahlavas* beside the *Śakas* and *Yavanas*)." } ] }, { "id": "pella-ancient-greek-pella", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/pella#ancient-greek-pella", "civilization": "pella", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Πέλλα", "transliteration": "Pélla", "ipa": "/ˈpel.la/", "literal_meaning": "Pella", "family": "pella", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -400, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Strabo, *Geography* 7, fr. 20, 23; Herodotus, *Histories* 7.123." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. Πέλλα." } ] }, { "id": "pella-latin-pella", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/pella#latin-pella", "civilization": "pella", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Pella", "transliteration": "Pella", "ipa": "/ˈpel.la/", "literal_meaning": "Pella", "family": "pella", "derived_from": "pella-ancient-greek-pella", "era_start": -200, "era_end": 500, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Livy, *Ab Urbe Condita* 44 (the Third Macedonian War); Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Pella*, *Pellaeus*." } ] }, { "id": "persepolis-akkadian-parsa", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/persepolis#akkadian-parsa", "civilization": "persepolis", "language": "akkadian", "original_text": "𒁇𒊓", "transliteration": "Pārsa", "ipa": "/ˈpaːr.sa/", "literal_meaning": "Persia; the city of Pārsa (Akkadian version of the royal inscriptions)", "family": "parsa", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -518, "era_end": -330, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Weissbach, F. H. *Die Keilinschriften der Achämeniden*. Leipzig: Hinrichs, 1911." }, { "citation": "*Chicago Assyrian Dictionary* (CAD), University of Chicago, Vol. P, s.v. *Parsu*." } ] }, { "id": "persepolis-ancient-greek-persepolis", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/persepolis#ancient-greek-persepolis", "civilization": "persepolis", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Περσέπολις", "transliteration": "Persépolis", "ipa": "/per.ˈse.po.lis/", "literal_meaning": "city of the Persians (with a pun on pérthō, \"to sack\")", "family": "persepolis", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -330, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Diodorus Siculus, *Bibliotheca historica* 17.70–72 (the burning of Persepolis)." }, { "citation": "Strabo, *Geography* 15.3.6." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. *Περσέπολις*." } ] }, { "id": "persepolis-elamite-parshan", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/persepolis#elamite-parshan", "civilization": "persepolis", "language": "elamite", "original_text": "𒁇𒊭𒀭", "transliteration": "Paršan", "ipa": "*ˈparʃan", "literal_meaning": "Persia; the city of Pārsa (Elamite administrative usage)", "family": "parsa", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -509, "era_end": -330, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Hallock, Richard T. *Persepolis Fortification Tablets*. Oriental Institute Publications 92. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1969." }, { "citation": "Hinz, Walther, and Heidemarie Koch. *Elamisches Wörterbuch*. Berlin: Dietrich Reimer, 1987, s.v. *Paršan*." } ] }, { "id": "persepolis-latin-persepolis", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/persepolis#latin-persepolis", "civilization": "persepolis", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Persepolis", "transliteration": "Persepolis", "ipa": "/per.ˈse.po.lis/", "literal_meaning": "city of the Persians", "family": "persepolis", "derived_from": "persepolis-ancient-greek-persepolis", "era_start": -50, "era_end": 500, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Quintus Curtius Rufus, *Historiae Alexandri Magni* 5.6–7." }, { "citation": "Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 6.115." }, { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Persepolis*." } ] }, { "id": "persepolis-old-persian-parsa", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/persepolis#old-persian-parsa", "civilization": "persepolis", "language": "old-persian", "original_text": "𐎱𐎠𐎼𐎿", "transliteration": "Pārsa", "ipa": "/ˈpaːr.sa/", "literal_meaning": "Persia; the city of Pārsa", "family": "parsa", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -518, "era_end": -330, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Kent, Roland G. *Old Persian: Grammar, Texts, Lexicon*. 2nd ed. New Haven: American Oriental Society, 1953, s.v. *Pārsa*." }, { "citation": "Schmitt, Rüdiger. *Wörterbuch der altpersischen Königsinschriften*. Wiesbaden: Reichert, 2014, s.v. *Pārsa*." }, { "citation": "Darius I, Persepolis inscriptions (DPa, DPd, DPe)." } ] }, { "id": "persia-akkadian-parsa", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/persia#akkadian-parsa", "civilization": "persia", "language": "akkadian", "original_text": "𒁇𒊓", "transliteration": "Pārsa", "ipa": "/ˈpaːr.sa/", "literal_meaning": "Persia (in various historical forms across Akkadian usage)", "family": "parsa", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -850, "era_end": -330, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Chicago Assyrian Dictionary* (CAD), University of Chicago, Vol. P, s.v. *Pārsa*, *Parsuwaš*, *Parsumaš*." }, { "citation": "Grayson, A. Kirk. *Assyrian Rulers of the Early First Millennium BC*. 2 vols. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1991–1996." }, { "citation": "Schaudig, Hanspeter. *Die Inschriften Nabonids von Babylon und Kyros' des Großen* (Cyrus Cylinder). Münster: Ugarit-Verlag, 2001." } ] }, { "id": "persia-ancient-greek-persis", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/persia#ancient-greek-persis", "civilization": "persia", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Περσίς", "transliteration": "Persís", "ipa": "/per.sís/", "literal_meaning": "Persia; the land of the Persians", "family": "parsa", "derived_from": "persia-old-persian-parsa", "era_start": -500, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Herodotus, *Histories*, books 1, 3, and 7, passim." }, { "citation": "Aeschylus, *Persae*, 472 BCE." }, { "citation": "Liddell, H. G., and R. Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon*. 9th ed., rev. H. S. Jones. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. *Persís*, *Persikē*, *Persai*." }, { "citation": "Beekes, Robert. *Etymological Dictionary of Greek*. Leiden: Brill, 2010, s.v. *Persís*." } ] }, { "id": "persia-biblical-hebrew-paras", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/persia#biblical-hebrew-paras", "civilization": "persia", "language": "biblical-hebrew", "original_text": "פָּרַס", "transliteration": "Pāras", "ipa": "/paːˈras/", "literal_meaning": "Persia (borrowed from Old Persian)", "family": "parsa", "derived_from": "persia-old-persian-parsa", "era_start": -550, "era_end": -100, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament* (HALOT), Leiden: Brill, 1994–2000, s.v. *pāras*." }, { "citation": "Ezra 1:1–4, 4:5–7; Daniel 5:28, 8:20, 10:13; Esther passim; Isaiah 44:28, 45:1." } ] }, { "id": "persia-classical-arabic-faris", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/persia#classical-arabic-faris", "civilization": "persia", "language": "classical-arabic", "original_text": "فارس", "transliteration": "Fāris", "ipa": "/ˈfaːris/", "literal_meaning": "Persia (from Old Persian Pārsa)", "family": "parsa", "derived_from": "persia-old-persian-parsa", "era_start": 600, "era_end": 1300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Lane, Edward William. *An Arabic-English Lexicon*. London: Williams and Norgate, 1863–1893, s.v. فارس." }, { "citation": "Yāqūt al-Ḥamawī. *Muʿjam al-Buldān*, s.v. فارس." } ] }, { "id": "persia-classical-chinese-bosi", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/persia#classical-chinese-bosi", "civilization": "persia", "language": "classical-chinese", "original_text": "波斯", "transliteration": "Bōsī", "ipa": null, "literal_meaning": "Persia (transcription of the Iranian name Pārs)", "family": "parsa", "derived_from": null, "era_start": 450, "era_end": 650, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Wei Shou, *Weishu* 102 (*Xiyu zhuan*, Account of the Western Regions)." }, { "citation": "Pulleyblank, Edwin G. *Encyclopaedia Iranica*, s.v. \"Chinese-Iranian Relations i. In Pre-Islamic Times\"." }, { "citation": "Kotyk, Jeffrey. *Sino-Iranian and Sino-Arabian Relations in Late Antiquity: China and the Parthians, Sasanians, and Arabs in the First Millennium*. Leiden: Brill, 2024." } ] }, { "id": "persia-demotic-mty", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/persia#demotic-mty", "civilization": "persia", "language": "demotic", "original_text": "", "transliteration": "Mty", "ipa": null, "literal_meaning": "the Mede; used in Egypt for the Persians", "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": -525, "era_end": -300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Spiegelberg, Wilhelm. *Die sogenannte demotische Chronik des Papyrus 215 der Bibliothèque Nationale zu Paris*. Leipzig: J. C. Hinrichs, 1914." }, { "citation": "*Chicago Demotic Dictionary*. Oriental Institute, University of Chicago, s.v. *mty*.", "url": "https://oi.uchicago.edu/research/chicago-demotic-dictionary-cdd" } ] }, { "id": "persia-elamite-parsan", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/persia#elamite-parsan", "civilization": "persia", "language": "elamite", "original_text": "𒁇𒊭𒀭", "transliteration": "Paršan", "ipa": "*parʃan", "literal_meaning": "Persia; the Persian heartland", "family": "parsa", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -520, "era_end": -330, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Hinz, Walther, and Heidemarie Koch. *Elamisches Wörterbuch*. 2 vols. Berlin: Dietrich Reimer, 1987, s.v. *Paršan*." }, { "citation": "Hallock, Richard T. *Persepolis Fortification Tablets*. Oriental Institute Publications 92. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1969." } ] }, { "id": "persia-imperial-aramaic-prs", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/persia#imperial-aramaic-prs", "civilization": "persia", "language": "imperial-aramaic", "original_text": "פרס", "transliteration": "Prs", "ipa": "*paːˈraːs", "literal_meaning": "Persia (in Aramaic administrative usage)", "family": "parsa", "derived_from": "persia-old-persian-parsa", "era_start": -500, "era_end": -200, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Porten, Bezalel, and Ada Yardeni. *Textbook of Aramaic Documents from Ancient Egypt* (TADAE). 4 vols. Jerusalem: Hebrew University, 1986–1999." }, { "citation": "Hoftijzer, J., and K. Jongeling. *Dictionary of the North-West Semitic Inscriptions*. Leiden: Brill, 1995, s.v. *prs*." } ] }, { "id": "persia-jewish-babylonian-aramaic-paras", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/persia#jewish-babylonian-aramaic-paras", "civilization": "persia", "language": "jewish-babylonian-aramaic", "original_text": "פרס", "transliteration": "Paras", "ipa": "/paːˈras/", "literal_meaning": "Persia", "family": "parsa", "derived_from": null, "era_start": 200, "era_end": 700, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Sokoloff, Michael. *A Dictionary of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic*. Ramat-Gan: Bar Ilan University Press, 2002, s.v. פרס." }, { "citation": "Babylonian Talmud, b. *Berakhot* 8b (Persian customs); b. *Avodah Zarah* 2b." } ] }, { "id": "persia-latin-persia", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/persia#latin-persia", "civilization": "persia", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Persia", "transliteration": "Persia", "ipa": "/ˈper.si.a/", "literal_meaning": "Persia; the land of the Persians", "family": "parsa", "derived_from": "persia-ancient-greek-persis", "era_start": -200, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Persae*, *Persis*." }, { "citation": "Ammianus Marcellinus, *Res Gestae* 23.6 (the excursus on the Persian provinces)." } ] }, { "id": "persia-middle-persian-eran", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/persia#middle-persian-eran", "civilization": "persia", "language": "middle-persian", "original_text": "𐭠𐭩𐭥𐭠𐭭", "transliteration": "Ērān", "ipa": "/eːˈraːn/", "literal_meaning": "of the Aryans; Iran", "family": "eran", "derived_from": null, "era_start": 224, "era_end": 900, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "MacKenzie, D. N. *A Concise Pahlavi Dictionary*. London: Oxford University Press, 1971, s.v. *ērān*." }, { "citation": "Gnoli, Gherardo. *The Idea of Iran: An Essay on its Origin*. Rome: Istituto Italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente, 1989." } ] }, { "id": "persia-old-persian-parsa", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/persia#old-persian-parsa", "civilization": "persia", "language": "old-persian", "original_text": "𐎱𐎠𐎼𐎿", "transliteration": "Pārsa", "ipa": "/ˈpaːr.sa/", "literal_meaning": "Persia; the Persian heartland", "family": "parsa", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -550, "era_end": -330, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Kent, Roland G. *Old Persian: Grammar, Texts, Lexicon*. 2nd ed. New Haven: American Oriental Society, 1953." }, { "citation": "Schmitt, Rüdiger. *Wörterbuch der altpersischen Königsinschriften*. Wiesbaden: Reichert, 2014, s.v. *Pārsa*." } ] }, { "id": "persia-parthian-aryan", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/persia#parthian-aryan", "civilization": "persia", "language": "parthian", "original_text": "𐭀𐭓𐭉𐭀𐭍", "transliteration": "ʾryʾn", "ipa": "/arˈjaːn/", "literal_meaning": "of the Aryans; Iran", "family": "eran", "derived_from": null, "era_start": 224, "era_end": 300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Huyse, Philip. *Die dreisprachige Inschrift Šābuhrs I. an der Kaʿba-i Zardušt (ŠKZ)*. Corpus Inscriptionum Iranicarum III/1. London: SOAS, 1999." }, { "citation": "Humbach, Helmut, and Prods O. Skjærvø. *The Sassanian Inscription of Paikuli*. 3 parts. Wiesbaden: Reichert, 1978–1983." }, { "citation": "MacKenzie, D. N. *Encyclopaedia Iranica*, s.v. \"Ērān, Ērānšahr\"." } ] }, { "id": "persia-sanskrit-parasika", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/persia#sanskrit-parasika", "civilization": "persia", "language": "sanskrit", "original_text": "पारसीक", "transliteration": "Pārasīka", "ipa": "/paːrɐˈsiːkɐ/", "literal_meaning": "Persian; of Persia (from Old Persian Pārsa)", "family": "parsa", "derived_from": "persia-old-persian-parsa", "era_start": 100, "era_end": 1200, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Mahābhārata* 6.10.51 (Bhīṣmaparvan, the survey of peoples)." }, { "citation": "Monier-Williams, Monier. *A Sanskrit-English Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1899, s.v. *pārasīka*." } ] }, { "id": "persia-syriac-pares", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/persia#syriac-pares", "civilization": "persia", "language": "syriac", "original_text": "ܦܪܣ", "transliteration": "Pāres", "ipa": "/ˈpaːrɛs/", "literal_meaning": "Persia", "family": "parsa", "derived_from": "persia-imperial-aramaic-prs", "era_start": 150, "era_end": 800, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Payne Smith, Jessie. *A Compendious Syriac Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1903, s.v. ܦܪܣ." }, { "citation": "Payne Smith, R. *Thesaurus Syriacus*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879–1901, s.v. ܦܪܣ." }, { "citation": "Peshitta, Daniel 8:20; Esther 1:14; Ezekiel 27:10." }, { "citation": "Chabot, J.-B. *Synodicon Orientale, ou recueil de synodes nestoriens*. Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1902." } ] }, { "id": "persian-gulf-akkadian-marratu", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/persian-gulf#akkadian-marratu", "civilization": "persian-gulf", "language": "akkadian", "original_text": "𒈥𒊏𒌈", "transliteration": "marratu", "ipa": "/marˈratu/", "literal_meaning": "the bitter (sea)", "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": -800, "era_end": -500, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Chicago Assyrian Dictionary* (CAD), University of Chicago, Vol. M/1, s.v. *marratu* A; s.v. *nāru marratu*." }, { "citation": "Horowitz, Wayne. *Mesopotamian Cosmic Geography*. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1998, ch. 2 (the Babylonian Map of the World, BM 92687)." } ] }, { "id": "persian-gulf-akkadian-tamtu-shaplitu", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/persian-gulf#akkadian-tamtu-shaplitu", "civilization": "persian-gulf", "language": "akkadian", "original_text": "𒀀𒀊𒁀 𒆠𒋫", "transliteration": "tâmtu šaplītu", "ipa": "/ˈtaːmtu ʃapˈliːtu/", "literal_meaning": "the Lower Sea", "family": "lower-sea", "derived_from": "persian-gulf-sumerian-a-ab-ba-sig", "era_start": -2300, "era_end": -600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Chicago Assyrian Dictionary* (CAD), University of Chicago, Vol. T, s.v. *tâmtu*; Vol. Š/1, s.v. *šaplû*." }, { "citation": "Assyrian and Babylonian royal inscriptions (the formula *ištu tâmti elīti adi tâmti šaplīti*, \"from the Upper Sea to the Lower Sea\")." } ] }, { "id": "persian-gulf-ancient-greek-persikos-kolpos", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/persian-gulf#ancient-greek-persikos-kolpos", "civilization": "persian-gulf", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Περσικὸς κόλπος", "transliteration": "Persikòs Kólpos", "ipa": "/per.si.ˈkos ˈkol.pos/", "literal_meaning": "the Persian gulf", "family": "persian-sea", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -340, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Strabo, *Geographica* 16.3.1–2." }, { "citation": "Claudius Ptolemy, *Geographia* 6.7; Arrian, *Indica* 40–41 (Nearchus's coastal voyage)." } ] }, { "id": "persian-gulf-classical-arabic-bahr-fars", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/persian-gulf#classical-arabic-bahr-fars", "civilization": "persian-gulf", "language": "classical-arabic", "original_text": "بحر فارس", "transliteration": "Baḥr Fāris", "ipa": "/baħr ˈfaːris/", "literal_meaning": "the Sea of Persia", "family": "persian-sea", "derived_from": null, "era_start": 700, "era_end": 1300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "al-Iṣṭakhrī, *Kitāb al-Masālik wa-l-Mamālik*. Ed. de Goeje, Leiden: Brill, 1870." }, { "citation": "Ibn Ḥawqal, *Ṣūrat al-Arḍ*. Ed. de Goeje, Leiden: Brill, 1873." } ] }, { "id": "persian-gulf-latin-sinus-persicus", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/persian-gulf#latin-sinus-persicus", "civilization": "persian-gulf", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Sinus Persicus", "transliteration": "Sinus Persicus", "ipa": "/ˈsi.nus ˈper.si.kus/", "literal_meaning": "the Persian gulf", "family": "persian-sea", "derived_from": "persian-gulf-ancient-greek-persikos-kolpos", "era_start": -50, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 6.28.108–115." }, { "citation": "Pomponius Mela, *De Chorographia* 3.8." } ] }, { "id": "persian-gulf-old-persian-drayah", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/persian-gulf#old-persian-drayah", "civilization": "persian-gulf", "language": "old-persian", "original_text": "𐎭𐎼𐎹", "transliteration": "drayah", "ipa": "*draˈja.ha", "literal_meaning": "the sea", "family": "persian-sea", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -520, "era_end": -486, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Kent, Roland G. *Old Persian: Grammar, Texts, Lexicon*. 2nd ed. New Haven: American Oriental Society, 1953, s.v. *draya-*; inscription DZc." }, { "citation": "Darius I, Suez canal stele (DZc), c. 500 BCE (Old Persian, Elamite, Babylonian, and Egyptian)." } ] }, { "id": "persian-gulf-sumerian-a-ab-ba-sig", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/persian-gulf#sumerian-a-ab-ba-sig", "civilization": "persian-gulf", "language": "sumerian", "original_text": "𒀀𒀊𒁀 𒋝", "transliteration": "a-ab-ba sig", "ipa": null, "literal_meaning": "the lower sea", "family": "lower-sea", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -2300, "era_end": -1600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Heimpel, Wolfgang. \"Das Untere Meer.\" *Zeitschrift für Assyriologie* 77 (1987): 22–91." }, { "citation": "Frayne, Douglas. *Sargonic and Gutian Periods (2334–2113 BC)*. Royal Inscriptions of Mesopotamia, Early Periods 2. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1993." } ] }, { "id": "philistia-akkadian-palashtu", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/philistia#akkadian-palashtu", "civilization": "philistia", "language": "akkadian", "original_text": "𒉺𒆷𒀸𒌅", "transliteration": "Palaštu", "ipa": "/paˈlaʃ.tu/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "peleset", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -800, "era_end": -630, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Royal inscriptions of Adad-nirari III and Tiglath-pileser III (the tribute of *Palaštu*/*Pilištu*)." }, { "citation": "*Chicago Assyrian Dictionary* (CAD), s.v. *Palaštu*; Bagg, Ariel. *Die Orts- und Gewässernamen der neuassyrischen Zeit*." } ] }, { "id": "philistia-ancient-greek-palaistine", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/philistia#ancient-greek-palaistine", "civilization": "philistia", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Παλαιστίνη", "transliteration": "Palaistínē", "ipa": "/pa.lai̯.ˈsti.nɛː/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "peleset", "derived_from": "philistia-biblical-hebrew-peleshet", "era_start": -450, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Herodotus, *Historiae* 1.105, 2.104, 3.5, 7.89 (\"Syria called Palaistínē\")." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. Παλαιστίνη." } ] }, { "id": "philistia-biblical-hebrew-peleshet", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/philistia#biblical-hebrew-peleshet", "civilization": "philistia", "language": "biblical-hebrew", "original_text": "פְּלֶשֶׁת", "transliteration": "Pᵊlešet", "ipa": "/pəˈlɛ.ʃɛt/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "peleset", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1100, "era_end": -200, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Exodus 15:14; Psalm 60:10, 87:4, 108:10; Isaiah 14:29, 14:31; Joel 4:4." }, { "citation": "Köhler, Ludwig, and Walter Baumgartner. *Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament* (HALOT). Leiden: Brill, 1994–2000, s.v. פְּלֶשֶׁת." } ] }, { "id": "philistia-classical-arabic-filastin", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/philistia#classical-arabic-filastin", "civilization": "philistia", "language": "classical-arabic", "original_text": "فلسطين", "transliteration": "Filasṭīn", "ipa": "/fi.lasˈtˤiːn/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "peleset", "derived_from": "philistia-latin-palaestina", "era_start": 630, "era_end": 1300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "al-Balādhurī, *Futūḥ al-Buldān*. Ed. de Goeje, Leiden: Brill, 1866." }, { "citation": "Yāqūt al-Ḥamawī, *Muʿjam al-Buldān*. Beirut: Dār Ṣādir, 1977, s.v. فلسطين." } ] }, { "id": "philistia-egyptian-peleset", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/philistia#egyptian-peleset", "civilization": "philistia", "language": "egyptian", "original_text": "𓊪𓂋𓊃𓏏𓈉", "transliteration": "Prs.t", "ipa": null, "literal_meaning": null, "family": "peleset", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1180, "era_end": -1130, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Medinet Habu reliefs and inscriptions of Ramesses III, Year 8 (the Sea Peoples land and sea battles)." }, { "citation": "Kitchen, Kenneth A. *Ramesside Inscriptions, Translated and Annotated* (RITA), Vol. V. Oxford: Blackwell, 2008." } ] }, { "id": "philistia-latin-palaestina", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/philistia#latin-palaestina", "civilization": "philistia", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Palaestina", "transliteration": "Palaestina", "ipa": "/pa.lae̯ˈsti.na/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "peleset", "derived_from": "philistia-ancient-greek-palaistine", "era_start": -50, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 5.66–68; the province *Syria Palaestina* from c. 135 CE." }, { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Palaestina*." } ] }, { "id": "phoenicia-ancient-greek-phoinike", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/phoenicia#ancient-greek-phoinike", "civilization": "phoenicia", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Φοινίκη", "transliteration": "Phoiníkē", "ipa": "/pʰoiˈni.kɛː/", "literal_meaning": "land of purple (and of the date-palm), from phoînix", "family": "phoinix", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -750, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. *Φοινίκη*, *φοῖνιξ*." }, { "citation": "Homer, *Odyssey* 4.83, 13.272, 14.288–291." }, { "citation": "Herodotus, *Histories* 1.1, 7.89." } ] }, { "id": "phoenicia-biblical-hebrew-sidonim", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/phoenicia#biblical-hebrew-sidonim", "civilization": "phoenicia", "language": "biblical-hebrew", "original_text": "צִידֹנִים", "transliteration": "Ṣīdōnîm", "ipa": "/sˤiːdoːˈniːm/", "literal_meaning": "Sidonians (the Phoenicians, after the city of Sidon)", "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1000, "era_end": -200, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament* (HALOT), Leiden: Brill, 1994–2000, s.v. *ṣīdōnî*." }, { "citation": "Judges 3:3, 10:12; 1 Kings 5:6, 11:1, 16:31." }, { "citation": "Deuteronomy 3:9." } ] }, { "id": "phoenicia-geez-finiqe", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/phoenicia#geez-finiqe", "civilization": "phoenicia", "language": "geez", "original_text": "ፊኒቄ", "transliteration": "Fīnīqē", "ipa": "/fiːniːˈqeː/", "literal_meaning": "Phoenicia (toponym; borrowed from Greek)", "family": "phoinix", "derived_from": "phoenicia-ancient-greek-phoinike", "era_start": 350, "era_end": 700, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Ethiopic New Testament, Acts 11:19, 15:3, 21:2." }, { "citation": "Dillmann, August. *Lexicon Linguae Aethiopicae*. Leipzig: Weigel, 1865, s.v. ፊኒቃ." } ] }, { "id": "phoenicia-latin-phoenice", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/phoenicia#latin-phoenice", "civilization": "phoenicia", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Phoenīcē", "transliteration": "Phoenīcē", "ipa": "/pʰoeˈniː.keː/", "literal_meaning": "Phoenicia (toponym; borrowed from Greek)", "family": "phoinix", "derived_from": "phoenicia-ancient-greek-phoinike", "era_start": -50, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Phoenice*, *Phoenices*." }, { "citation": "Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 5.67–78." } ] }, { "id": "phoenicia-phoenician-kanaan", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/phoenicia#phoenician-kanaan", "civilization": "phoenicia", "language": "phoenician", "original_text": "𐤊𐤍𐤏𐤍", "transliteration": "Kanaʿan", "ipa": "*kanaˈʕan", "literal_meaning": "Canaan; the Canaanite (land)", "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1000, "era_end": -300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Krahmalkov, Charles R. *Phoenician-Punic Dictionary*. Leuven: Peeters, 2000, s.v. *knʿn*." }, { "citation": "Augustine of Hippo, *Expositio Epistulae ad Romanos* 13 (the Punic-speakers of North Africa called themselves *Chanani*)." } ] }, { "id": "phoenicia-syriac-puniqe", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/phoenicia#syriac-puniqe", "civilization": "phoenicia", "language": "syriac", "original_text": "ܦܘܢܝܩܐ", "transliteration": "Pūnīqē", "ipa": "/puːˈniːqeː/", "literal_meaning": "Phoenicia (toponym; borrowed from Greek)", "family": "phoinix", "derived_from": "phoenicia-ancient-greek-phoinike", "era_start": 150, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Peshitta, Acts 11:19, 15:3, 21:2." }, { "citation": "Jennings, William. *Lexicon to the Syriac New Testament*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1926, s.v. ܦܘܢܝܩܐ." } ] }, { "id": "phrygia-akkadian-mushku", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/phrygia#akkadian-mushku", "civilization": "phrygia", "language": "akkadian", "original_text": "𒈬𒍑𒆪", "transliteration": "Mušku", "ipa": "/ˈmuʃ.ku/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "mushku", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1100, "era_end": -650, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Royal Inscriptions of Sargon II of Assyria (RINAP 2), e.g. the Annals: *Mita šar Mušku*, \"Mita king of Mušku.\"" }, { "citation": "Tiglath-pileser I inscriptions (the earlier *Mušku* in the upper Tigris); *Chicago Assyrian Dictionary* (CAD), s.v. *Muški*." } ] }, { "id": "phrygia-ancient-greek-phrygia", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/phrygia#ancient-greek-phrygia", "civilization": "phrygia", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Φρυγία", "transliteration": "Phrygía", "ipa": "/pʰry.ˈɡi.a/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "phrygia", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -700, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Homer, *Iliad* 3.184–187; Herodotus, *Historiae* 7.73." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. Φρυγία." } ] }, { "id": "phrygia-biblical-hebrew-meshek", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/phrygia#biblical-hebrew-meshek", "civilization": "phrygia", "language": "biblical-hebrew", "original_text": "מֶשֶׁךְ", "transliteration": "Mešek", "ipa": "/ˈmɛ.ʃɛk/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "mushku", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -700, "era_end": -200, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Genesis 10:2; Ezekiel 27:13, 32:26, 38:2–3, 39:1; Psalm 120:5." }, { "citation": "Köhler, Ludwig, and Walter Baumgartner. *Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament* (HALOT). Leiden: Brill, 1994–2000, s.v. מֶשֶׁךְ." } ] }, { "id": "phrygia-latin-phrygia", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/phrygia#latin-phrygia", "civilization": "phrygia", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Phrygia", "transliteration": "Phrygia", "ipa": "/ˈpʰry.ɡi.a/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "phrygia", "derived_from": "phrygia-ancient-greek-phrygia", "era_start": -50, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Virgil, *Aeneid* 7.139, 9.617; Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 5.41." }, { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Phrygia*." } ] }, { "id": "po-ancient-greek-eridanos", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/po#ancient-greek-eridanos", "civilization": "po", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Ἠριδανός", "transliteration": "Ēridanós", "ipa": "/ɛː.ri.daˈnos/", "literal_meaning": "the Eridanos (the mythical amber-river, identified with the Po)", "family": "eridanos", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -700, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "disputed", "sources": [ { "citation": "Herodotus, *Histories* 3.115 (doubting that any river named Eridanos exists); Apollonius Rhodius, *Argonautica* 4.596–611; Polybius, *Histories* 2.16." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. Ἠριδανός." } ] }, { "id": "po-ancient-greek-pados", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/po#ancient-greek-pados", "civilization": "po", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Πάδος", "transliteration": "Pádos", "ipa": "/ˈpa.dos/", "literal_meaning": "the Po", "family": "padus", "derived_from": "po-latin-padus", "era_start": -200, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Polybius, *Histories* 2.16 (the Padus, \"called by the poets the Eridanos\"); Strabo, *Geography* 5.1.11." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. Πάδος." } ] }, { "id": "po-latin-padus", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/po#latin-padus", "civilization": "po", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Padus", "transliteration": "Padus", "ipa": "/ˈpa.dus/", "literal_meaning": "the Po", "family": "padus", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -500, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 3.117–122 (the three names of the river); Vergil, *Georgics* 1.482, 4.372." }, { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Padus*." } ] }, { "id": "punjab-sanskrit-panchanada", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/punjab#sanskrit-panchanada", "civilization": "punjab", "language": "sanskrit", "original_text": "पञ्चनद", "transliteration": "Pañcanada", "ipa": "/ˈpɐɲ.t͡ʃɐ.nɐ.dɐ/", "literal_meaning": "the five rivers", "family": "panchanada", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -400, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Mahābhārata* (the *Pañcanada* country); the classical geographers." }, { "citation": "Monier-Williams, Monier. *A Sanskrit-English Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1899, s.v. *pañcanada*." } ] }, { "id": "punjab-sanskrit-sapta-sindhu", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/punjab#sanskrit-sapta-sindhu", "civilization": "punjab", "language": "sanskrit", "original_text": "सप्त सिन्धु", "transliteration": "Sapta Sindhu", "ipa": "/ˈsɐp.tɐ ˈsin.dʱu/", "literal_meaning": "the seven rivers", "family": "sindhu", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1500, "era_end": -800, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Ṛgveda* (the *sapta sindhavaḥ*, the seven rivers); cf. the Avestan *Hapta Həndu*." }, { "citation": "Monier-Williams, Monier. *A Sanskrit-English Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1899, s.v. *sindhu*, *sapta*." } ] }, { "id": "red-sea-ancient-greek-erythra-thalassa", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/red-sea#ancient-greek-erythra-thalassa", "civilization": "red-sea", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Ἐρυθρὰ Θάλασσα", "transliteration": "Erythrà Thálassa", "ipa": "/e.ry.ˈtʰra ˈtʰa.las.sa/", "literal_meaning": "the Red Sea", "family": "erythra", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -500, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Herodotus, *Historiae* 1.1, 2.158, 4.37." }, { "citation": "*Periplus Maris Erythraei* (1st c. CE); Strabo, *Geographica* 16.3–4." } ] }, { "id": "red-sea-biblical-hebrew-yam-suph", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/red-sea#biblical-hebrew-yam-suph", "civilization": "red-sea", "language": "biblical-hebrew", "original_text": "יַם סוּף", "transliteration": "Yam Sūph", "ipa": "/jam suːf/", "literal_meaning": "the Sea of Reeds", "family": "suph", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1200, "era_end": -200, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Exodus 13:18, 15:4, 15:22; Numbers 33:10–11; 1 Kings 9:26." }, { "citation": "Köhler, Ludwig, and Walter Baumgartner. *Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament* (HALOT). Leiden: Brill, 1994–2000, s.v. סוּף." } ] }, { "id": "red-sea-classical-arabic-bahr-al-qulzum", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/red-sea#classical-arabic-bahr-al-qulzum", "civilization": "red-sea", "language": "classical-arabic", "original_text": "بحر القلزم", "transliteration": "Baḥr al-Qulzum", "ipa": "/baħr alˈqul.zum/", "literal_meaning": "the Sea of Clysma", "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": 700, "era_end": 1300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "al-Masʿūdī, *Murūj al-Dhahab wa-Maʿādin al-Jawhar*. Ed. Pellat, Beirut, 1966–79." }, { "citation": "Yāqūt al-Ḥamawī, *Muʿjam al-Buldān*. Beirut: Dār Ṣādir, 1977, s.v. القلزم." } ] }, { "id": "red-sea-latin-mare-rubrum", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/red-sea#latin-mare-rubrum", "civilization": "red-sea", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Mare Rubrum", "transliteration": "Mare Rubrum", "ipa": "/ˈma.re ˈru.brum/", "literal_meaning": "the Red Sea", "family": "erythra", "derived_from": "red-sea-ancient-greek-erythra-thalassa", "era_start": -50, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 6.28.107–108, 6.32–33." }, { "citation": "Quintus Curtius Rufus, *Historiae Alexandri Magni* 8.9; Vulgate, Exodus 15:4 (*Mare Rubrum*)." } ] }, { "id": "red-sea-syriac-yamma-d-sop", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/red-sea#syriac-yamma-d-sop", "civilization": "red-sea", "language": "syriac", "original_text": "ܝܡܐ ܕܣܘܦ", "transliteration": "yammā d-sōp", "ipa": "/jamˈmaː dsoːp/", "literal_meaning": "the Sea of Reeds", "family": "suph", "derived_from": "red-sea-biblical-hebrew-yam-suph", "era_start": 150, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Peshitta, Exodus 15:4, 15:22 (Syriac Old Testament, translated from the Hebrew)." }, { "citation": "Payne Smith, Robert. *Thesaurus Syriacus*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879–1901, s.v. ܝܡܐ." } ] }, { "id": "rome-ancient-greek-rhome", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/rome#ancient-greek-rhome", "civilization": "rome", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Ῥώμη", "transliteration": "Rhṓmē", "ipa": "/ˈr̥ɔː.mɛː/", "literal_meaning": "Rome (toponym)", "family": "roma", "derived_from": "rome-latin-roma", "era_start": -350, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon*. 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. Ῥώμη." }, { "citation": "Polybius, *Histories* 1.6, 6.11–18." }, { "citation": "Dionysius of Halicarnassus, *Roman Antiquities* 1.72–73." } ] }, { "id": "rome-biblical-hebrew-kittim", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/rome#biblical-hebrew-kittim", "civilization": "rome", "language": "biblical-hebrew", "original_text": "כִּתִּים", "transliteration": "Kittîm", "ipa": "/kitˈtiːm/", "literal_meaning": "Kittim (Cyprus; the western coastlanders), applied to the Romans", "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": -165, "era_end": -1, "confidence": "disputed", "sources": [ { "citation": "Koehler, Ludwig, and Walter Baumgartner. *The Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament* (HALOT). Leiden: Brill, 1994–2000, s.v. *כִּתִּים*." }, { "citation": "Numbers 24:24; Daniel 11:30." }, { "citation": "Pesher Habakkuk (1QpHab), cols. II–VI." } ] }, { "id": "rome-classical-arabic-rum", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/rome#classical-arabic-rum", "civilization": "rome", "language": "classical-arabic", "original_text": "الروم", "transliteration": "al-Rūm", "ipa": "/arˈruːm/", "literal_meaning": "the Romans; the Roman (Byzantine) realm", "family": "roma", "derived_from": "rome-syriac-rhoma", "era_start": 600, "era_end": 1300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Lane, Edward William. *An Arabic-English Lexicon*. London: Williams and Norgate, 1863–1893, s.v. روم." }, { "citation": "Qur'an, *Sūrat al-Rūm* (30):2–4." } ] }, { "id": "rome-classical-chinese-daqin", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/rome#classical-chinese-daqin", "civilization": "rome", "language": "classical-chinese", "original_text": "大秦", "transliteration": "Dàqín", "ipa": null, "literal_meaning": "Great Qin (Rome as a counterpart-empire of China)", "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": 90, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Fan Ye, *Hou Hanshu* 88 (*Xiyu zhuan*, Account of the Western Regions)." }, { "citation": "Leslie, D. D., and K. H. J. Gardiner. *The Roman Empire in Chinese Sources*. Rome: Bardi Editore, 1996." }, { "citation": "Hill, John E. *Through the Jade Gate to Rome*. Charleston: BookSurge, 2009." } ] }, { "id": "rome-coptic-hrome", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/rome#coptic-hrome", "civilization": "rome", "language": "coptic", "original_text": "ϩⲣⲱⲙⲏ", "transliteration": "Hrōmē", "ipa": "/ˈhroːmeː/", "literal_meaning": "Rome (toponym)", "family": "roma", "derived_from": "rome-ancient-greek-rhome", "era_start": 300, "era_end": 1000, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*The Coptic Version of the New Testament in the Southern Dialect (Sahidic)*. Edited by George Horner. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1911–1924, Romans 1:7, 1:15; Acts 28:14–16." }, { "citation": "Förster, Hans. *Wörterbuch der griechischen Wörter in den koptischen dokumentarischen Texten*. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2002, s.v. ϩⲣⲱⲙⲏ." } ] }, { "id": "rome-geez-rom", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/rome#geez-rom", "civilization": "rome", "language": "geez", "original_text": "ሮም", "transliteration": "Rōm", "ipa": "/roːm/", "literal_meaning": "Rome; the Roman (Byzantine) empire", "family": "roma", "derived_from": "rome-ancient-greek-rhome", "era_start": 350, "era_end": 1500, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Leslau, Wolf. *Comparative Dictionary of Geʿez (Classical Ethiopic)*. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1987, s.v. *rōm*." }, { "citation": "Uhlig, Siegbert, ed. *Encyclopaedia Aethiopica*. 5 vols. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2003–2014, s.v. *Rome*." } ] }, { "id": "rome-jewish-babylonian-aramaic-romi", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/rome#jewish-babylonian-aramaic-romi", "civilization": "rome", "language": "jewish-babylonian-aramaic", "original_text": "רומי", "transliteration": "Rōmī", "ipa": "/ˈroːmi/", "literal_meaning": "Rome", "family": "roma", "derived_from": "rome-ancient-greek-rhome", "era_start": 200, "era_end": 700, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Sokoloff, Michael. *A Dictionary of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic*. Ramat-Gan: Bar Ilan University Press, 2002, s.v. רומי." }, { "citation": "Babylonian Talmud, b. *Avodah Zarah* 10a–11b (the cycle of Rome and Antoninus); b. *Gittin* 56b–57b (the destruction narratives)." } ] }, { "id": "rome-latin-roma", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/rome#latin-roma", "civilization": "rome", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Roma", "transliteration": "Roma", "ipa": "/ˈroː.ma/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "roma", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -600, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Roma*." }, { "citation": "Cornell, T. J. *The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000–264 BC)*. London: Routledge, 1995." }, { "citation": "Plutarch, *Romulus* 1–2." } ] }, { "id": "rome-middle-persian-hrom", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/rome#middle-persian-hrom", "civilization": "rome", "language": "middle-persian", "original_text": "𐭧𐭫𐭥𐭬", "transliteration": "Hrōm", "ipa": "/hroːm/", "literal_meaning": "Rome; the Roman (later Byzantine) empire", "family": "roma", "derived_from": "rome-ancient-greek-rhome", "era_start": 240, "era_end": 900, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "MacKenzie, D. N. *A Concise Pahlavi Dictionary*. London: Oxford University Press, 1971, s.v. *Hrōm*." }, { "citation": "Huyse, Philip. *Die dreisprachige Inschrift Šābuhrs I. an der Kaʿba-i Zardušt (ŠKZ)*. Corpus Inscriptionum Iranicarum III/1. London: SOAS, 1999." } ] }, { "id": "rome-parthian-frwm", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/rome#parthian-frwm", "civilization": "rome", "language": "parthian", "original_text": "𐭐𐭓𐭅𐭌", "transliteration": "frwm", "ipa": "/froːm/", "literal_meaning": "Rome; the Roman empire", "family": "roma", "derived_from": "rome-ancient-greek-rhome", "era_start": 240, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Huyse, Philip. *Die dreisprachige Inschrift Šābuhrs I. an der Kaʿba-i Zardušt (ŠKZ)*. Corpus Inscriptionum Iranicarum III/1. London: SOAS, 1999." }, { "citation": "Durkin-Meisterernst, Desmond. *Dictionary of Manichaean Middle Persian and Parthian*. Corpus Fontium Manichaeorum, Subsidia. Turnhout: Brepols, 2004, s.v. *frwm*." } ] }, { "id": "rome-sanskrit-romaka", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/rome#sanskrit-romaka", "civilization": "rome", "language": "sanskrit", "original_text": "रोमक", "transliteration": "Romaka", "ipa": "/ˈroːmɐkɐ/", "literal_meaning": "Roman; of Rome", "family": "roma", "derived_from": "rome-latin-roma", "era_start": 300, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Monier-Williams, Monier. *A Sanskrit-English Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1899, s.v. *romaka*." }, { "citation": "Varāhamihira, *Pañcasiddhāntikā*, the Romaka-siddhānta. Edited by G. Thibaut and Sudhākara Dvivedī. Benares, 1889." }, { "citation": "*Sūrya-Siddhānta*, chapter 12 (Bhūgolādhyāya)." } ] }, { "id": "rome-syriac-rhoma", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/rome#syriac-rhoma", "civilization": "rome", "language": "syriac", "original_text": "ܪܗܘܡܐ", "transliteration": "Rhōmā", "ipa": "/ˈrhoːmaː/", "literal_meaning": "Rome; the Roman (Byzantine) realm", "family": "roma", "derived_from": "rome-ancient-greek-rhome", "era_start": 200, "era_end": 800, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Sokoloff, Michael. *A Syriac Lexicon: A Translation from the Latin, Correction, Expansion, and Update of C. Brockelmann's Lexicon Syriacum*. Winona Lake/Piscataway: Eisenbrauns/Gorgias, 2009, s.v. ܪܗܘܡܝܐ." }, { "citation": "Payne Smith, R. *Thesaurus Syriacus*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879–1901, s.v. ܪܗܘܡܐ." }, { "citation": "Peshitta, Acts 28:14–16; Romans 1:7." } ] }, { "id": "scythia-akkadian-ishkuza", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/scythia#akkadian-ishkuza", "civilization": "scythia", "language": "akkadian", "original_text": "𒅖𒆪𒍝", "transliteration": "Iškuza", "ipa": "/iʃˈku.za/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "skuda", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -680, "era_end": -640, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Esarhaddon's oracle queries to Šamaš (State Archives of Assyria 4, nos. 20, 23, 35), on the *Iškuza* and their king Bartatua." }, { "citation": "Royal Inscriptions of Esarhaddon (RINAP 4); Ivantchik, Askold. *Les Cimmériens au Proche-Orient*. Fribourg, 1993." } ] }, { "id": "scythia-ancient-greek-skolotoi", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/scythia#ancient-greek-skolotoi", "civilization": "scythia", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Σκόλοτοι", "transliteration": "Skólotoi", "ipa": "/ˈsko.lo.toi̯/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "skuda", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -450, "era_end": -420, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Herodotus, *Historiae* 4.6 (\"the whole people are called *Skólotoi*, after their king; the Greeks call them Scythians\")." }, { "citation": "Szemerényi, Oswald. *Four Old Iranian Ethnic Names: Scythian – Skudra – Sogdian – Saka*. Vienna, 1980." } ] }, { "id": "scythia-ancient-greek-skythai", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/scythia#ancient-greek-skythai", "civilization": "scythia", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Σκύθαι", "transliteration": "Skýthai", "ipa": "/ˈsky.tʰai̯/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "skuda", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -700, "era_end": 300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Herodotus, *Historiae* 4.1–142 (the Scythian *logos*)." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. Σκύθης." } ] }, { "id": "scythia-biblical-hebrew-ashkenaz", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/scythia#biblical-hebrew-ashkenaz", "civilization": "scythia", "language": "biblical-hebrew", "original_text": "אַשְׁכְּנַז", "transliteration": "Aškenaz", "ipa": "/ʔaʃ.kəˈnaz/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "skuda", "derived_from": "scythia-akkadian-ishkuza", "era_start": -700, "era_end": -200, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Genesis 10:3; 1 Chronicles 1:6; Jeremiah 51:27 (Ararat, Minni, and Ashkenaz summoned against Babylon)." }, { "citation": "Köhler, Ludwig, and Walter Baumgartner. *Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament* (HALOT). Leiden: Brill, 1994–2000, s.v. אַשְׁכְּנַז." } ] }, { "id": "scythia-classical-chinese-sai", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/scythia#classical-chinese-sai", "civilization": "scythia", "language": "classical-chinese", "original_text": "塞", "transliteration": "Sài", "ipa": null, "literal_meaning": null, "family": "saka", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -200, "era_end": 100, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Hanshu* 96 (\"Memoir on the Western Regions\"), the *Sai* 塞 of the Ili valley and their king (*Sai-wang* 塞王)." }, { "citation": "Pulleyblank, Edwin G. \"The Consonantal System of Old Chinese.\" *Asia Major* 9 (1962)." } ] }, { "id": "scythia-latin-sacae", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/scythia#latin-sacae", "civilization": "scythia", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Sacae", "transliteration": "Sacae", "ipa": "/ˈsa.kai̯/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "saka", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -50, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 6.50; Pomponius Mela, *De Chorographia* 3.5." }, { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Sacae*." } ] }, { "id": "scythia-latin-scythae", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/scythia#latin-scythae", "civilization": "scythia", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Scythae", "transliteration": "Scythae", "ipa": "/ˈsky.tʰai̯/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "skuda", "derived_from": "scythia-ancient-greek-skythai", "era_start": -50, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 4.80–81, 6.50; Horace, *Odes* 3.24, 4.14." }, { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Scytha*." } ] }, { "id": "scythia-old-persian-saka", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/scythia#old-persian-saka", "civilization": "scythia", "language": "old-persian", "original_text": "𐎿𐎣𐎠", "transliteration": "Sakā", "ipa": "*ˈsa.kaː", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "saka", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -520, "era_end": -330, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Darius I, Behistun (DB) §21, Naqsh-e Rustam (DNa), and the Daiva inscription (the *Sakā* and their three divisions)." }, { "citation": "Kent, Roland G. *Old Persian: Grammar, Texts, Lexicon*. 2nd ed. New Haven: American Oriental Society, 1953, s.v. *Saka-*." } ] }, { "id": "scythia-sanskrit-shaka", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/scythia#sanskrit-shaka", "civilization": "scythia", "language": "sanskrit", "original_text": "शक", "transliteration": "Śaka", "ipa": "/ˈɕɐ.kɐ/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "saka", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -150, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Patañjali, *Mahābhāṣya*; the Western Kshatrapa and Junagadh inscriptions; the *Śaka* era (from 78 CE)." }, { "citation": "Monier-Williams, Monier. *A Sanskrit-English Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1899, s.v. *Śaka*." } ] }, { "id": "sicily-ancient-greek-sikania", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/sicily#ancient-greek-sikania", "civilization": "sicily", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Σικανία", "transliteration": "Sikanía", "ipa": "/si.ka.ˈni.a/", "literal_meaning": "Sicily (the older name, the land of the Sicani)", "family": "sikania", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -800, "era_end": -450, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Thucydides, *History* 6.2.2 (the whole island once called Sikania after the Sicani); Homer, *Odyssey* 24.307 (Σικανίη)." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. Σικανία." } ] }, { "id": "sicily-ancient-greek-sikelia", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/sicily#ancient-greek-sikelia", "civilization": "sicily", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Σικελία", "transliteration": "Sikelía", "ipa": "/si.ke.ˈli.a/", "literal_meaning": "Sicily (the land of the Sikels)", "family": "sikelia", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -700, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Thucydides, *History* 6.2 (the peoples of Sicily; Sikania renamed Sikelia after the Sikels); Herodotus, *Histories* 7.170." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. Σικελία." } ] }, { "id": "sicily-ancient-greek-trinakria", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/sicily#ancient-greek-trinakria", "civilization": "sicily", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Τρινακρία", "transliteration": "Trinakría", "ipa": "/tri.na.ˈkri.a/", "literal_meaning": "the three-cornered (island)", "family": "trinakria", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -700, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Homer, *Odyssey* 11.107, 12.127 (Θρινακίη, the island of the Sun's cattle); later Τρινακρία in the geographers." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. Τρινακρία, Θρινακίη." } ] }, { "id": "sicily-classical-arabic-siqilliya", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/sicily#classical-arabic-siqilliya", "civilization": "sicily", "language": "classical-arabic", "original_text": "صقلية", "transliteration": "Ṣiqilliya", "ipa": "/sˤi.qil.ˈlij.ja/", "literal_meaning": "Sicily", "family": "sikelia", "derived_from": "sicily-ancient-greek-sikelia", "era_start": 827, "era_end": 1100, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Yāqūt al-Ḥamawī, *Muʿjam al-Buldān*, s.v. صقلية; Ibn Ḥawqal, *Ṣūrat al-Arḍ*; al-Idrīsī (for Roger II of Sicily)." } ] }, { "id": "sicily-latin-sicilia", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/sicily#latin-sicilia", "civilization": "sicily", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Sicilia", "transliteration": "Sicilia", "ipa": "/si.ˈki.li.a/", "literal_meaning": "Sicily", "family": "sikelia", "derived_from": "sicily-ancient-greek-sikelia", "era_start": -200, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Cicero, *In Verrem* (the governance of the province); Livy 21–24; Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Sicilia*." } ] }, { "id": "sicily-latin-trinacria", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/sicily#latin-trinacria", "civilization": "sicily", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Trinacria", "transliteration": "Trinacria", "ipa": "/tri.ˈna.kri.a/", "literal_meaning": "Sicily (the three-cornered)", "family": "trinakria", "derived_from": "sicily-ancient-greek-trinakria", "era_start": -100, "era_end": 500, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Vergil, *Aeneid* 3.384, 3.440, 3.554; Ovid, *Metamorphoses* 5.476; Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Trinacria*." } ] }, { "id": "sidon-akkadian-siduna", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/sidon#akkadian-siduna", "civilization": "sidon", "language": "akkadian", "original_text": "𒍢𒁺𒈾", "transliteration": "Ṣiduna", "ipa": "/sˤiˈduna/", "literal_meaning": "Sidon", "family": "sidon", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1350, "era_end": -640, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Moran, William L. *The Amarna Letters*. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992 (EA 144–145, Zimreddi of Ṣiduna)." }, { "citation": "Tadmor, Hayim. *The Inscriptions of Tiglath-Pileser III, King of Assyria*. Jerusalem: Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities, 1994." } ] }, { "id": "sidon-ancient-greek-sidon", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/sidon#ancient-greek-sidon", "civilization": "sidon", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Σιδών", "transliteration": "Sidṓn", "ipa": "/si.ˈdɔːn/", "literal_meaning": "Sidon", "family": "sidon", "derived_from": "sidon-phoenician-sidon", "era_start": -700, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Homer, *Iliad* 6.290–291; *Odyssey* 4.83–84, 15.425." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. *Σιδών*." } ] }, { "id": "sidon-biblical-hebrew-tsidon", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/sidon#biblical-hebrew-tsidon", "civilization": "sidon", "language": "biblical-hebrew", "original_text": "צִידוֹן", "transliteration": "Ṣīdōn", "ipa": "/sˤiːˈðoːn/", "literal_meaning": "Sidon", "family": "sidon", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1000, "era_end": -200, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament* (HALOT), Leiden: Brill, 1994–2000, s.v. *ṣîdōn*." }, { "citation": "Genesis 10:15, 10:19; Joshua 11:8 (\"Great Sidon\"); 1 Kings 11:5; Isaiah 23:2–12; Ezekiel 28:21–22." } ] }, { "id": "sidon-classical-arabic-sayda", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/sidon#classical-arabic-sayda", "civilization": "sidon", "language": "classical-arabic", "original_text": "صيدا", "transliteration": "Ṣaydā", "ipa": "/ˈsˤaj.daː/", "literal_meaning": "Sidon (with an audible echo of ṣayd, \"hunting, fishing\")", "family": "sidon", "derived_from": null, "era_start": 700, "era_end": 1300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Yāqūt al-Ḥamawī. *Muʿjam al-Buldān*, s.v. صيدا." }, { "citation": "Lane, Edward William. *An Arabic-English Lexicon*. London: Williams and Norgate, 1863–1893, s.v. صيد." } ] }, { "id": "sidon-geez-sidona", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/sidon#geez-sidona", "civilization": "sidon", "language": "geez", "original_text": "ሲዶና", "transliteration": "Sidona", "ipa": "/siˈdo.na/", "literal_meaning": "Sidon", "family": "sidon", "derived_from": "sidon-ancient-greek-sidon", "era_start": 350, "era_end": 700, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Ethiopic Old Testament (Genesis; Isaiah) and New Testament (Matthew 11; Mark 7)." }, { "citation": "Dillmann, August. *Lexicon Linguae Aethiopicae*. Leipzig: Weigel, 1865." } ] }, { "id": "sidon-jewish-babylonian-aramaic-saidan", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/sidon#jewish-babylonian-aramaic-saidan", "civilization": "sidon", "language": "jewish-babylonian-aramaic", "original_text": "צידן", "transliteration": "Ṣaidan", "ipa": "/sˤajˈdan/", "literal_meaning": "Sidon", "family": "sidon", "derived_from": null, "era_start": 200, "era_end": 700, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Sokoloff, Michael. *A Dictionary of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic*. Ramat-Gan: Bar Ilan University Press, 2002, s.v. צידן." } ] }, { "id": "sidon-latin-sidon", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/sidon#latin-sidon", "civilization": "sidon", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Sidōn", "transliteration": "Sidōn", "ipa": "/ˈsi.doːn/", "literal_meaning": "Sidon", "family": "sidon", "derived_from": "sidon-ancient-greek-sidon", "era_start": -50, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Virgil, *Aeneid* 1.619, 1.678 (Sidonius); Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 5.76." }, { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Sidon*." } ] }, { "id": "sidon-phoenician-sidon", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/sidon#phoenician-sidon", "civilization": "sidon", "language": "phoenician", "original_text": "𐤑𐤃𐤍", "transliteration": "Ṣīdūn", "ipa": "*sˤiːduːn", "literal_meaning": "fishery, fishing-place (from a root ṣwd, \"to fish, to hunt\")", "family": "sidon", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1000, "era_end": -300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Krahmalkov, Charles R. *Phoenician-Punic Dictionary*. Leuven: Peeters, 2000, s.v. *ṣdn*." }, { "citation": "Phoenician inscriptions and coin legends of Sidon (the Eshmunazar and Bodashtart inscriptions)." } ] }, { "id": "sidon-syriac-tsidon", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/sidon#syriac-tsidon", "civilization": "sidon", "language": "syriac", "original_text": "ܨܝܕܘܢ", "transliteration": "Ṣidon", "ipa": "/ˈsˤiːðon/", "literal_meaning": "Sidon", "family": "sidon", "derived_from": null, "era_start": 150, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Peshitta, Genesis 10:15 (ܨܝܕܘܢ, \"Canaan begat Sidon his firstborn\"); Matthew 11:21–22; Mark 7:24, 31." }, { "citation": "Payne Smith, R. *Thesaurus Syriacus*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879–1901, s.v. ܨܝܕܘܢ." } ] }, { "id": "sidon-ugaritic-sdn", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/sidon#ugaritic-sdn", "civilization": "sidon", "language": "ugaritic", "original_text": "𐎕𐎄𐎐", "transliteration": "Ṣdn", "ipa": "*sˤiduːn", "literal_meaning": "Sidon", "family": "sidon", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1400, "era_end": -1190, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "del Olmo Lete, G., and J. Sanmartín. *A Dictionary of the Ugaritic Language in the Alphabetic Tradition*. Leiden: Brill, 2003, s.v. *ṣdn*." } ] }, { "id": "sindh-classical-arabic-al-sind", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/sindh#classical-arabic-al-sind", "civilization": "sindh", "language": "classical-arabic", "original_text": "السند", "transliteration": "al-Sind", "ipa": "/asˈsind/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "sindhu", "derived_from": null, "era_start": 711, "era_end": 1300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "al-Balādhurī, *Futūḥ al-Buldān*. Ed. de Goeje, Leiden: Brill, 1866 (the conquest of al-Sind, 711 CE)." }, { "citation": "Yāqūt al-Ḥamawī, *Muʿjam al-Buldān*. Beirut: Dār Ṣādir, 1977, s.v. السند." } ] }, { "id": "sindh-old-persian-hindus", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/sindh#old-persian-hindus", "civilization": "sindh", "language": "old-persian", "original_text": "𐏃𐎡𐎯𐎢𐏁", "transliteration": "Hinduš", "ipa": "*ˈhin.duʃ", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "sindhu", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -518, "era_end": -330, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Darius I, the Persepolis (DPe) and Naqsh-e Rustam (DNa) inscriptions (the satrapy *Hinduš*)." }, { "citation": "Kent, Roland G. *Old Persian: Grammar, Texts, Lexicon*. 2nd ed. New Haven: American Oriental Society, 1953, s.v. *Hinduš-*." } ] }, { "id": "sindh-sanskrit-sindhu", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/sindh#sanskrit-sindhu", "civilization": "sindh", "language": "sanskrit", "original_text": "सिन्धु", "transliteration": "Sindhu", "ipa": "/ˈsin.dʱu/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "sindhu", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1500, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Ṛgveda* (the river *Sindhu*); cf. the entry for the Indus, which this name also designates." }, { "citation": "Monier-Williams, Monier. *A Sanskrit-English Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1899, s.v. *sindhu*." } ] }, { "id": "sogdiana-ancient-greek-sogdiane", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/sogdiana#ancient-greek-sogdiane", "civilization": "sogdiana", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Σογδιανή", "transliteration": "Sogdianḗ", "ipa": "/soɡ.di.a.ˈnɛː/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "suguda", "derived_from": "sogdiana-old-persian-suguda", "era_start": -330, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Arrian, *Anabasis* 3.28–4.7; Strabo, *Geographica* 11.11.1–4." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. Σογδιανή." } ] }, { "id": "sogdiana-avestan-sugda", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/sogdiana#avestan-sugda", "civilization": "sogdiana", "language": "avestan", "original_text": "𐬯𐬏𐬖𐬜𐬀", "transliteration": "Suγδa", "ipa": "*ˈsuɣ.ða", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "suguda", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1000, "era_end": -300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Avesta, *Vidēvdād* (Vendidad) 1.4 (Gava-Suγδa, the second land created); Boyce, Mary. *A History of Zoroastrianism*, Vol. 1. Leiden: Brill, 1975." }, { "citation": "Bartholomae, Christian. *Altiranisches Wörterbuch*. Strassburg: Trübner, 1904, s.v. *suγδa*." } ] }, { "id": "sogdiana-classical-arabic-al-sughd", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/sogdiana#classical-arabic-al-sughd", "civilization": "sogdiana", "language": "classical-arabic", "original_text": "الصغد", "transliteration": "al-Sughd", "ipa": "/asˤˈsˤuɣd/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "suguda", "derived_from": null, "era_start": 700, "era_end": 1300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "al-Iṣṭakhrī, *Kitāb al-Masālik wa-l-Mamālik*. Ed. de Goeje, Leiden: Brill, 1870." }, { "citation": "Yāqūt al-Ḥamawī, *Muʿjam al-Buldān*. Beirut: Dār Ṣādir, 1977, s.v. الصغد." } ] }, { "id": "sogdiana-latin-sogdiana", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/sogdiana#latin-sogdiana", "civilization": "sogdiana", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Sogdiana", "transliteration": "Sogdiana", "ipa": "/soɡ.diˈaː.na/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "suguda", "derived_from": "sogdiana-ancient-greek-sogdiane", "era_start": -50, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 6.18.49; Quintus Curtius Rufus, *Historiae Alexandri* 7.10–8.4." }, { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Sogdianus*." } ] }, { "id": "sogdiana-old-persian-suguda", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/sogdiana#old-persian-suguda", "civilization": "sogdiana", "language": "old-persian", "original_text": "𐎿𐎢𐎥𐎢𐎭𐎠", "transliteration": "Suguda", "ipa": "*su.gu.da", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "suguda", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -520, "era_end": -330, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Darius I, Behistun inscription (DB) §6; Naqsh-e Rustam (DNa), the satrapy lists." }, { "citation": "Kent, Roland G. *Old Persian: Grammar, Texts, Lexicon*. 2nd ed. New Haven: American Oriental Society, 1953, s.v. *Suguda-*." } ] }, { "id": "sparta-ancient-greek-lakedaimon", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/sparta#ancient-greek-lakedaimon", "civilization": "sparta", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Λακεδαίμων", "transliteration": "Lakedaímōn", "ipa": "/la.ke.ˈdai̯.mɔːn/", "literal_meaning": "Lacedaemon (the Spartan state and land)", "family": "lakedaimon", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -800, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Homer, *Iliad* 2.581–587; *Odyssey* 4.1, 17.121." }, { "citation": "Thucydides, *History of the Peloponnesian War* 1.10, 5.54." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. *Λακεδαίμων*." } ] }, { "id": "sparta-ancient-greek-sparte", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/sparta#ancient-greek-sparte", "civilization": "sparta", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Σπάρτη", "transliteration": "Spártē", "ipa": "/ˈspar.tɛː/", "literal_meaning": "Sparta (the town on the Eurotas)", "family": "sparte", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -800, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Homer, *Odyssey* 1.93, 2.214, 4.10." }, { "citation": "Thucydides, *History of the Peloponnesian War* 1.10." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. *Σπάρτη*." } ] }, { "id": "sparta-classical-arabic-asbarta", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/sparta#classical-arabic-asbarta", "civilization": "sparta", "language": "classical-arabic", "original_text": "أسبرطة", "transliteration": "Asbarṭa", "ipa": "/ʔas.barˈtˤa/", "literal_meaning": "Sparta", "family": "sparte", "derived_from": "sparta-ancient-greek-sparte", "era_start": 800, "era_end": 1300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "al-Masʿūdī. *Murūj al-dhahab*, on the kings and history of the Greeks." }, { "citation": "Yāqūt al-Ḥamawī. *Muʿjam al-Buldān*." } ] }, { "id": "sparta-classical-arabic-lakdimon", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/sparta#classical-arabic-lakdimon", "civilization": "sparta", "language": "classical-arabic", "original_text": "لكديمون", "transliteration": "Lakdimon", "ipa": "/lak.diˈmuːn/", "literal_meaning": "Lacedaemon (the Spartan state)", "family": "lakedaimon", "derived_from": "sparta-ancient-greek-lakedaimon", "era_start": 800, "era_end": 1300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "al-Masʿūdī. *Murūj al-dhahab*, on the kings and history of the Greeks." }, { "citation": "Translations of Greek historical and geographical works in the Abbasid tradition." } ] }, { "id": "sparta-latin-lacedaemon", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/sparta#latin-lacedaemon", "civilization": "sparta", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Lacedaemōn", "transliteration": "Lacedaemōn", "ipa": "/la.ke.ˈdai̯.moːn/", "literal_meaning": "Lacedaemon (the Spartan state)", "family": "lakedaimon", "derived_from": "sparta-ancient-greek-lakedaimon", "era_start": -200, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Cicero, *De Officiis* 1.84; Livy, *Ab Urbe Condita* 34.38." }, { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Lacedaemon*." } ] }, { "id": "sparta-latin-sparta", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/sparta#latin-sparta", "civilization": "sparta", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Sparta", "transliteration": "Sparta", "ipa": "/ˈspar.ta/", "literal_meaning": "Sparta", "family": "sparte", "derived_from": "sparta-ancient-greek-sparte", "era_start": -200, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Cicero, *Pro Flacco* 63; *Tusculanae Disputationes* 5.77." }, { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Sparta*." } ] }, { "id": "sumer-akkadian-shumeru", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/sumer#akkadian-shumeru", "civilization": "sumer", "language": "akkadian", "original_text": "𒋗𒈨𒊒", "transliteration": "Šumeru", "ipa": "/ʃuˈme.ru/", "literal_meaning": "Sumer (the Akkadian name for the land of Kengir)", "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": -2300, "era_end": -500, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Frayne, Douglas R. *Ur III Period (2112–2004 BC)*. The Royal Inscriptions of Mesopotamia, Early Periods 3/2. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1997." }, { "citation": "*Reallexikon der Assyriologie und Vorderasiatischen Archäologie* (RlA). Berlin: de Gruyter, s.v. *Sumer*." } ] }, { "id": "sumer-biblical-hebrew-shinar", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/sumer#biblical-hebrew-shinar", "civilization": "sumer", "language": "biblical-hebrew", "original_text": "שִׁנְעָר", "transliteration": "Šinʿār", "ipa": "/ʃinˈʕaːr/", "literal_meaning": "Shinar; the southern Mesopotamian land of the first cities", "family": "shinar", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -900, "era_end": -100, "confidence": "disputed", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament* (HALOT), Leiden: Brill, 1994–2000, s.v. *šinʿār*." }, { "citation": "Genesis 10:10, 11:2; Daniel 1:2." } ] }, { "id": "sumer-egyptian-sngr", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/sumer#egyptian-sngr", "civilization": "sumer", "language": "egyptian", "original_text": "𓐠𓏤𓈖𓎼𓄿𓂋", "transliteration": "Sngr", "ipa": null, "literal_meaning": "Babylonia; the land of southern Mesopotamia", "family": "shinar", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1450, "era_end": -1280, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Sethe, Kurt. *Urkunden der 18. Dynastie* (Urk. IV). Leipzig: J. C. Hinrichs, 1906–1909." }, { "citation": "The Epigraphic Survey. *Reliefs and Inscriptions at Karnak IV: The Battle Reliefs of King Sety I*. Chicago: Oriental Institute, 1986." }, { "citation": "Gardiner, Alan H. *Ancient Egyptian Onomastica*. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1947, s.v. *Sngr*." } ] }, { "id": "sumer-hittite-shanhara", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/sumer#hittite-shanhara", "civilization": "sumer", "language": "hittite", "original_text": "𒊭𒀭𒄩𒊏", "transliteration": "Šanḫara", "ipa": null, "literal_meaning": "Babylonia; the land of southern Mesopotamia", "family": "shinar", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1400, "era_end": -1200, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "del Monte, Giuseppe F., and Johann Tischler. *Die Orts- und Gewässernamen der hethitischen Texte* (RGTC 6). Wiesbaden: Reichert, 1978, s.v. *Šanḫara*." }, { "citation": "Moran, William L. *The Amarna Letters*. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992 (EA 35)." } ] }, { "id": "sumer-sumerian-kengir", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/sumer#sumerian-kengir", "civilization": "sumer", "language": "sumerian", "original_text": "𒆠𒂗𒄀", "transliteration": "Kengir", "ipa": null, "literal_meaning": "the land of the noble lords (Sumer)", "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": -2600, "era_end": -1900, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*The Electronic Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary* (ePSD). Babylonian Section, University of Pennsylvania Museum, s.v. *kiengir*." }, { "citation": "Edzard, Dietz Otto. *Sumerian Grammar*. Handbook of Oriental Studies I/71. Leiden: Brill, 2003." } ] }, { "id": "susa-akkadian-shushan", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/susa#akkadian-shushan", "civilization": "susa", "language": "akkadian", "original_text": "𒋗𒊭𒀭", "transliteration": "Šušan", "ipa": "/ʃuːˈʃan/", "literal_meaning": "Susa (Akkadian toponym)", "family": "susa", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -2300, "era_end": -540, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Zadok, Ran. *Geographical Names According to New- and Late-Babylonian Texts* (RGTC 8). Wiesbaden: Reichert, 1985, s.v. *Šušan*." }, { "citation": "*Chicago Assyrian Dictionary* (CAD), University of Chicago, s.v. *Šušan*." }, { "citation": "Royal inscriptions of Ashurbanipal recording the sack of Susa, 646 BCE." } ] }, { "id": "susa-ancient-greek-sousa", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/susa#ancient-greek-sousa", "civilization": "susa", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Σοῦσα", "transliteration": "Soûsa", "ipa": "/ˈsuː.sa/", "literal_meaning": "Susa (Greek toponym)", "family": "susa", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -525, "era_end": 300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Herodotus, *Histories* 5.49–54 (the Royal Road), 1.188, 3.70." }, { "citation": "Aeschylus, *Persae* 16, 119, 535; Strabo, *Geōgraphiká* 15.3.2." } ] }, { "id": "susa-biblical-hebrew-shushan", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/susa#biblical-hebrew-shushan", "civilization": "susa", "language": "biblical-hebrew", "original_text": "שׁוּשַׁן", "transliteration": "Šūšan", "ipa": "/ʃuːˈʃan/", "literal_meaning": "Susa (Hebrew toponym)", "family": "susa", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -480, "era_end": -160, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Esther 1:2, 1:5, 2:3, 3:15, 8:14–15, 9:6–15; Nehemiah 1:1; Daniel 8:2." }, { "citation": "Köhler, Ludwig, and Walter Baumgartner. *The Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament* (HALOT). Leiden: Brill, 1994–2000, s.v. שׁוּשַׁן." } ] }, { "id": "susa-classical-arabic-sus", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/susa#classical-arabic-sus", "civilization": "susa", "language": "classical-arabic", "original_text": "السوس", "transliteration": "al-Sūs", "ipa": "/asˈsuːs/", "literal_meaning": "Susa (the town of Sūs)", "family": "susa", "derived_from": "susa-middle-persian-shush", "era_start": 650, "era_end": 1300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Yāqūt al-Ḥamawī. *Muʿjam al-Buldān*. Beirut: Dār Ṣādir, s.v. *al-Sūs*." }, { "citation": "Lane, Edward William. *An Arabic-English Lexicon*. London: Williams and Norgate, 1863–1893." } ] }, { "id": "susa-elamite-shushun", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/susa#elamite-shushun", "civilization": "susa", "language": "elamite", "original_text": "𒋢𒋢𒌦", "transliteration": "Šušun", "ipa": "*ʃuʃun", "literal_meaning": "Susa (Elamite toponym)", "family": "susa", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -2700, "era_end": -360, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Hinz, Walther, and Heidemarie Koch. *Elamisches Wörterbuch*. Berlin: Reimer, 1987, s.v. *Šušun*, *Šušan*." }, { "citation": "Potts, Daniel T. *The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999." } ] }, { "id": "susa-imperial-aramaic-shushan", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/susa#imperial-aramaic-shushan", "civilization": "susa", "language": "imperial-aramaic", "original_text": "שושן", "transliteration": "Šwšn", "ipa": "*ʃuːˈʃan", "literal_meaning": "Susa (Aramaic administrative usage)", "family": "susa", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -500, "era_end": -200, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Ezra 4:9 (Aramaic)." }, { "citation": "Hoftijzer, J., and K. Jongeling. *Dictionary of the North-West Semitic Inscriptions*. Leiden: Brill, 1995, s.v. *šwšn*." } ] }, { "id": "susa-jewish-babylonian-aramaic-shushan", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/susa#jewish-babylonian-aramaic-shushan", "civilization": "susa", "language": "jewish-babylonian-aramaic", "original_text": "שושן", "transliteration": "Šušan", "ipa": "/ʃuːˈʃan/", "literal_meaning": "Susa", "family": "susa", "derived_from": null, "era_start": 200, "era_end": 700, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Sokoloff, Michael. *A Dictionary of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic*. Ramat-Gan: Bar Ilan University Press, 2002, s.v. שושן." }, { "citation": "Babylonian Talmud, b. *Menaḥot* 98a (the relief of *Shushan ha-birah* on the Temple's eastern gate); the Megillah of Esther." } ] }, { "id": "susa-latin-susa", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/susa#latin-susa", "civilization": "susa", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Susa", "transliteration": "Susa", "ipa": "/ˈsuː.sa/", "literal_meaning": "Susa (toponym; borrowed from Greek)", "family": "susa", "derived_from": "susa-ancient-greek-sousa", "era_start": -50, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 6.132–135." }, { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Susa*, *Susiani*." } ] }, { "id": "susa-middle-persian-shush", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/susa#middle-persian-shush", "civilization": "susa", "language": "middle-persian", "original_text": "𐭱𐭥𐭱", "transliteration": "Šuš", "ipa": "*ʃuːʃ", "literal_meaning": "Susa (Sasanian toponym)", "family": "susa", "derived_from": null, "era_start": 224, "era_end": 700, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Daryaee, Touraj. *Šahrestānīhā ī Ērānšahr: A Middle Persian Text on Late Antique Geography, Epic, and History*. Costa Mesa: Mazda, 2002, §47." }, { "citation": "MacKenzie, D. N. *A Concise Pahlavi Dictionary*. London: Oxford University Press, 1971." } ] }, { "id": "susa-old-persian-cusa", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/susa#old-persian-cusa", "civilization": "susa", "language": "old-persian", "original_text": "𐏂𐎢𐏁𐎠", "transliteration": "Çūšā", "ipa": "/t͡suːˈʃaː/", "literal_meaning": "Susa (Old Persian toponym)", "family": "susa", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -520, "era_end": -330, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Kent, Roland G. *Old Persian: Grammar, Texts, Lexicon*. 2nd ed. New Haven: American Oriental Society, 1953, s.v. *Çūšā*." }, { "citation": "Darius I, Susa palace foundation charter (DSf); Behistun inscription (DB)." } ] }, { "id": "susa-sumerian-shushin", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/susa#sumerian-shushin", "civilization": "susa", "language": "sumerian", "original_text": "𒈹𒂞𒆠", "transliteration": "Šušin", "ipa": null, "literal_meaning": "Susa (written with the logogram MÙŠ.EREN)", "family": "susa", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -2900, "era_end": -1800, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Edzard, Dietz Otto, and Gertrud Farber. *Répertoire Géographique des Textes Cunéiformes, Band 2: Die Orts- und Gewässernamen der Zeit der 3. Dynastie von Ur*. Wiesbaden: Reichert, 1974, s.v. *Šušin*." }, { "citation": "Inscription of Puzur-Inshushinak, governor of Susa (Sargonic period)." } ] }, { "id": "susa-syriac-shushan", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/susa#syriac-shushan", "civilization": "susa", "language": "syriac", "original_text": "ܫܘܫܢ", "transliteration": "Šūšan", "ipa": "/ʃuːˈʃan/", "literal_meaning": "Susa (Syriac toponym)", "family": "susa", "derived_from": "susa-biblical-hebrew-shushan", "era_start": 150, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Peshitta, Daniel 8:2; Esther, passim; Ezra 4:9." }, { "citation": "Payne Smith, R. *Thesaurus Syriacus*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879–1901, s.v. ܫܘܫܢ." } ] }, { "id": "syracuse-ancient-greek-syrakousai", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/syracuse#ancient-greek-syrakousai", "civilization": "syracuse", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Συράκουσαι", "transliteration": "Syrákousai", "ipa": "/syˈraː.ku.sai̯/", "literal_meaning": "Syracuse (from the marsh Syrakō)", "family": "syrakousai", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -733, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Thucydides, *History* 6.3.2 (the foundation by Archias of Corinth); Acts 28:12 (Συρακούσας, Paul's three-day stay)." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. Συράκουσαι." } ] }, { "id": "syracuse-classical-arabic-saraqusa", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/syracuse#classical-arabic-saraqusa", "civilization": "syracuse", "language": "classical-arabic", "original_text": "سرقوسة", "transliteration": "Saraqūsa", "ipa": "/sa.raˈquː.sa/", "literal_meaning": "Syracuse", "family": "syrakousai", "derived_from": "syracuse-latin-syracusae", "era_start": 878, "era_end": 1300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Yāqūt al-Ḥamawī, *Muʿjam al-Buldān*, s.v. سرقوسة; the Arabic sources on Muslim Sicily collected in Amari, *Storia dei Musulmani di Sicilia*." } ] }, { "id": "syracuse-latin-syracusae", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/syracuse#latin-syracusae", "civilization": "syracuse", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Syrācūsae", "transliteration": "Syrācūsae", "ipa": "/sy.raːˈkuː.sae̯/", "literal_meaning": "Syracuse", "family": "syrakousai", "derived_from": "syracuse-ancient-greek-syrakousai", "era_start": -200, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Cicero, *In Verrem* 2.4.117–119 (the four quarters of Syracuse); Livy 24–25 (Marcellus' siege, 213–211 BCE)." }, { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Syracusae*." } ] }, { "id": "syria-akkadian-aramu", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/syria#akkadian-aramu", "civilization": "syria", "language": "akkadian", "original_text": "𒀀𒊏𒈬", "transliteration": "Aramu", "ipa": "/aˈraːmu/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "aram", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1100, "era_end": -600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Chicago Assyrian Dictionary* (CAD), University of Chicago, Vol. A/2, s.v. *Aramu*, *Arumu*." }, { "citation": "Neo-Assyrian royal inscriptions (Tiglath-pileser I onward, campaigns against the *Aḫlamû-Aramu*)." } ] }, { "id": "syria-ancient-greek-syria", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/syria#ancient-greek-syria", "civilization": "syria", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Συρία", "transliteration": "Syría", "ipa": "/sy.ˈri.a/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "syria", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -500, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Herodotus, *Historiae* 7.63 (\"the Greeks call them Syrians, the barbarians call them Assyrians\")." }, { "citation": "Rollinger, Robert. \"The Terms 'Assyria' and 'Syria' Again.\" *Journal of Near Eastern Studies* 65, no. 4 (2006): 283–287." } ] }, { "id": "syria-biblical-hebrew-aram", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/syria#biblical-hebrew-aram", "civilization": "syria", "language": "biblical-hebrew", "original_text": "אֲרָם", "transliteration": "Ărām", "ipa": "/ʔaˈraːm/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "aram", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1000, "era_end": -200, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Genesis 10:22–23; 2 Samuel 8:5–6, 10:6; 1 Kings 11:25." }, { "citation": "Köhler, Ludwig, and Walter Baumgartner. *Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament* (HALOT). Leiden: Brill, 1994–2000, s.v. אֲרָם." } ] }, { "id": "syria-classical-arabic-sham", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/syria#classical-arabic-sham", "civilization": "syria", "language": "classical-arabic", "original_text": "الشام", "transliteration": "al-Shām", "ipa": "/aʃˈʃaːm/", "literal_meaning": "the north (the left-hand land)", "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": 600, "era_end": 1300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Yāqūt al-Ḥamawī, *Muʿjam al-Buldān*. Beirut: Dār Ṣādir, 1977, s.v. الشام." }, { "citation": "Lane, Edward William. *An Arabic-English Lexicon*. London: Williams and Norgate, 1863–93, s.v. ش-أ-م." } ] }, { "id": "syria-imperial-aramaic-aram", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/syria#imperial-aramaic-aram", "civilization": "syria", "language": "imperial-aramaic", "original_text": "ארם", "transliteration": "Aram", "ipa": "/ʔaˈraːm/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "aram", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -900, "era_end": -200, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Tel Dan stele (KAI 310), 9th c. BCE; Sefire treaties (KAI 222–224), 8th c. BCE." }, { "citation": "Hoftijzer, Jacob, and Karel Jongeling. *Dictionary of the North-West Semitic Inscriptions*. Leiden: Brill, 1995, s.v. *ʾrm*." } ] }, { "id": "syria-latin-syria", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/syria#latin-syria", "civilization": "syria", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Syria", "transliteration": "Syria", "ipa": "/ˈsy.ri.a/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "syria", "derived_from": "syria-ancient-greek-syria", "era_start": -100, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 5.12.66–67." }, { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Syria*." } ] }, { "id": "syria-syriac-surya", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/syria#syriac-surya", "civilization": "syria", "language": "syriac", "original_text": "ܣܘܪܝܐ", "transliteration": "Sūryā", "ipa": "/suːrˈjaː/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "syria", "derived_from": "syria-ancient-greek-syria", "era_start": 150, "era_end": 1300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Payne Smith, Robert. *Thesaurus Syriacus*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879–1901, s.v. ܣܘܪܝܐ, ܣܘܪܝܝܐ." }, { "citation": "Brock, Sebastian. \"Some Basic Annotation to the Hidden Pearl.\" *Hugoye* 5, no. 1 (2002)." } ] }, { "id": "tarentum-ancient-greek-taras", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/tarentum#ancient-greek-taras", "civilization": "tarentum", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Τάρας", "transliteration": "Táras", "ipa": "/ˈta.ras/", "literal_meaning": "Taras (the hero, son of Poseidon)", "family": "taras", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -706, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Strabo, *Geography* 6.3.2–3 (the foundation by the Partheniai; the hero Taras and the dolphin); Herodotus, *Histories* 3.136." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. Τάρας." } ] }, { "id": "tarentum-latin-tarentum", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/tarentum#latin-tarentum", "civilization": "tarentum", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Tarentum", "transliteration": "Tarentum", "ipa": "/taˈren.tum/", "literal_meaning": "Tarentum (Taranto)", "family": "taras", "derived_from": "tarentum-ancient-greek-taras", "era_start": -300, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Horace, *Odes* 2.6, 3.5 (\"soft Tarentum\"); Livy, *Ab Urbe Condita* 25 (its capture); Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Tarentum*." } ] }, { "id": "tarquinia-etruscan-tarchna", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/tarquinia#etruscan-tarchna", "civilization": "tarquinia", "language": "etruscan", "original_text": "𐌕𐌀𐌓𐌙𐌍𐌀", "transliteration": "Tarχna", "ipa": "/ˈtarkʰna/", "literal_meaning": "Tarquinia", "family": "tarchna", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -700, "era_end": -100, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "The François Tomb, Vulci, inscription *Cneve Tarchunies Rumach* (\"Gnaeus Tarquinius of Rome\"), 4th c. BCE." }, { "citation": "Bonfante, Giuliano, and Larissa Bonfante. *The Etruscan Language: An Introduction*. Rev. ed. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2002, s.v. *Tarχna*." } ] }, { "id": "tarquinia-latin-tarquinii", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/tarquinia#latin-tarquinii", "civilization": "tarquinia", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Tarquiniī", "transliteration": "Tarquiniī", "ipa": "/tarˈkʷiː.ni.iː/", "literal_meaning": "Tarquinia", "family": "tarchna", "derived_from": "tarquinia-etruscan-tarchna", "era_start": -600, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Livy, *Ab Urbe Condita* 1 (the Tarquin kings); Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Tarquinii*, *Tarquiniensis*." } ] }, { "id": "taurus-ancient-greek-tauros", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/taurus#ancient-greek-tauros", "civilization": "taurus", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Ταῦρος", "transliteration": "Taûros", "ipa": "/ˈtau̯.ros/", "literal_meaning": "the Bull", "family": "tauros", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -500, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Herodotus, *Historiae* 1.72; Strabo, *Geographica* 2.1.1, 11.12.1–2 (the Taurus as the dividing line of Asia)." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. Ταῦρος." } ] }, { "id": "taurus-latin-taurus", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/taurus#latin-taurus", "civilization": "taurus", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Taurus", "transliteration": "Taurus", "ipa": "/ˈtau̯.rus/", "literal_meaning": "the Bull", "family": "tauros", "derived_from": "taurus-ancient-greek-tauros", "era_start": -50, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 5.27.97–99; Pomponius Mela, *De Chorographia* 1.15." }, { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Taurus*." } ] }, { "id": "thebes-ancient-greek-thebai", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/thebes#ancient-greek-thebai", "civilization": "thebes", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Θῆβαι", "transliteration": "Thêbai", "ipa": "/ˈtʰɛː.bai/", "literal_meaning": "Thebes (the seven-gated)", "family": "thebai", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -800, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Homer, *Iliad* 4.378, *Odyssey* 11.263 (the Theban saga); Hesiod; Pindar (himself a Theban)." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. Θῆβαι." } ] }, { "id": "thebes-latin-thebae", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/thebes#latin-thebae", "civilization": "thebes", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Thēbae", "transliteration": "Thēbae", "ipa": "/ˈtʰeː.bai/", "literal_meaning": "Thebes", "family": "thebai", "derived_from": "thebes-ancient-greek-thebai", "era_start": -200, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Statius, *Thebais* (the epic of the Seven against Thebes); Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Thebae*." } ] }, { "id": "thebes-mycenaean-greek-te-qa", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/thebes#mycenaean-greek-te-qa", "civilization": "thebes", "language": "mycenaean-greek", "original_text": "𐀳𐀣", "transliteration": "te-qa", "ipa": "*tʰɛːɡʷai", "literal_meaning": "Thebes", "family": "thebai", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1400, "era_end": -1200, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "The Thebes Linear B tablets (the Kadmeion archive); Aravantinos, Godart & Sacconi, *Thèbes: Fouilles de la Cadmée*." }, { "citation": "Ventris, Michael, and John Chadwick. *Documents in Mycenaean Greek*. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1973." } ] }, { "id": "tiber-ancient-greek-thybris", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/tiber#ancient-greek-thybris", "civilization": "tiber", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Θύβρις", "transliteration": "Thýbris", "ipa": "/ˈtʰy.bris/", "literal_meaning": "the Tiber (poetic)", "family": "tiberis", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -300, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Greek poetic usage; Vergil, *Aeneid* 8.330–332 (the archaizing Latin *Thybris*, from the Greek form); LSJ, s.v. Θύβρις." } ] }, { "id": "tiber-ancient-greek-tiberis", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/tiber#ancient-greek-tiberis", "civilization": "tiber", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Τίβερις", "transliteration": "Tíberis", "ipa": "/ˈti.be.ris/", "literal_meaning": "the Tiber", "family": "tiberis", "derived_from": "tiber-latin-tiberis", "era_start": -300, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Strabo, *Geography* 5.3; Dionysius of Halicarnassus, *Roman Antiquities* 1.71; Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. Τίβερις." } ] }, { "id": "tiber-latin-albula", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/tiber#latin-albula", "civilization": "tiber", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Albula", "transliteration": "Albula", "ipa": "/ˈal.bu.la/", "literal_meaning": "the whitish one (the Tiber's archaic name)", "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": -753, "era_end": -510, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Livy, *Ab Urbe Condita* 1.3.8 (*Albula, quem nunc Tiberim vocant*); Varro, *De Lingua Latina* 5.30; Vergil, *Aeneid* 8.332; Ovid, *Fasti* 2.389–390." } ] }, { "id": "tiber-latin-tiberis", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/tiber#latin-tiberis", "civilization": "tiber", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Tiberis", "transliteration": "Tiberis", "ipa": "/ˈti.be.ris/", "literal_meaning": "the Tiber", "family": "tiberis", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -600, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Livy, *Ab Urbe Condita* 1; Vergil, *Aeneid* 8; Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Tiberis*." } ] }, { "id": "tigris-akkadian-idiqlat", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/tigris#akkadian-idiqlat", "civilization": "tigris", "language": "akkadian", "original_text": "𒈦𒄘𒃼", "transliteration": "Idiqlat", "ipa": "/idiqlat/", "literal_meaning": "the Tigris", "family": "idigna", "derived_from": "tigris-sumerian-idigna", "era_start": -2300, "era_end": -100, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Chicago Assyrian Dictionary* (CAD), University of Chicago, Vol. I/J, s.v. *Idiqlat*." }, { "citation": "Edzard, Dietz Otto. *Reallexikon der Assyriologie*, s.v. *Tigris*." } ] }, { "id": "tigris-ancient-greek-tigris", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/tigris#ancient-greek-tigris", "civilization": "tigris", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Τίγρις", "transliteration": "Tígris", "ipa": "/ˈti.ɡris/", "literal_meaning": "the Tigris (associated with tígris, \"tiger\")", "family": "tigris", "derived_from": "tigris-old-persian-tigra", "era_start": -500, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Herodotus, *Histories* 1.189, 5.52." }, { "citation": "Strabo, *Geography* 11.14.8; 16.1.9." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. *Τίγρις*." } ] }, { "id": "tigris-biblical-hebrew-hiddeqel", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/tigris#biblical-hebrew-hiddeqel", "civilization": "tigris", "language": "biblical-hebrew", "original_text": "חִדֶּקֶל", "transliteration": "Ḥiddeqel", "ipa": "/ħidˈdɛqɛl/", "literal_meaning": "the Tigris", "family": "idigna", "derived_from": "tigris-akkadian-idiqlat", "era_start": -900, "era_end": -300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Genesis 2:14 (the third river of Eden); Daniel 10:4." }, { "citation": "*Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament* (HALOT), Leiden: Brill, 1994–2000, s.v. *ḥiddeqel*." } ] }, { "id": "tigris-classical-arabic-dijla", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/tigris#classical-arabic-dijla", "civilization": "tigris", "language": "classical-arabic", "original_text": "دجلة", "transliteration": "Dijla", "ipa": "/ˈdid͡ʒla/", "literal_meaning": "the Tigris", "family": "idigna", "derived_from": "tigris-imperial-aramaic-diglat", "era_start": 700, "era_end": 1300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Yāqūt al-Ḥamawī. *Muʿjam al-Buldān*, s.v. دجلة." }, { "citation": "Lane, Edward William. *An Arabic-English Lexicon*. London: Williams and Norgate, 1863–1893, s.v. دجلة." } ] }, { "id": "tigris-geez-tigros", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/tigris#geez-tigros", "civilization": "tigris", "language": "geez", "original_text": "ጤግሮስ", "transliteration": "Ṭigros", "ipa": "/tˤiɡˈros/", "literal_meaning": "the Tigris", "family": "tigris", "derived_from": "tigris-ancient-greek-tigris", "era_start": 350, "era_end": 700, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Ethiopic Old Testament, Genesis 2:14 (the third river of Eden)." }, { "citation": "Dillmann, August. *Lexicon Linguae Aethiopicae*. Leipzig: Weigel, 1865." } ] }, { "id": "tigris-imperial-aramaic-diglat", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/tigris#imperial-aramaic-diglat", "civilization": "tigris", "language": "imperial-aramaic", "original_text": "דגלת", "transliteration": "Diglat", "ipa": "*diɡlat", "literal_meaning": "the Tigris", "family": "idigna", "derived_from": "tigris-akkadian-idiqlat", "era_start": -700, "era_end": -200, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Hoftijzer, J., and K. Jongeling. *Dictionary of the North-West Semitic Inscriptions*. Leiden: Brill, 1995." }, { "citation": "Aramaic usage continued in the Targums and the Syriac Deqlaṯ." } ] }, { "id": "tigris-latin-tigris", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/tigris#latin-tigris", "civilization": "tigris", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Tigris", "transliteration": "Tigris", "ipa": "/ˈti.ɡris/", "literal_meaning": "the Tigris", "family": "tigris", "derived_from": "tigris-ancient-greek-tigris", "era_start": -50, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 6.127–128 (on the river's name and swiftness)." }, { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Tigris*." } ] }, { "id": "tigris-old-persian-tigra", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/tigris#old-persian-tigra", "civilization": "tigris", "language": "old-persian", "original_text": "𐎫𐎡𐎥𐎼𐎠", "transliteration": "Tigrā", "ipa": "/tigˈraː/", "literal_meaning": "the Tigris (reanalyzed as \"the arrow,\" tigra)", "family": "tigris", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -520, "era_end": -330, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Kent, Roland G. *Old Persian: Grammar, Texts, Lexicon*. 2nd ed. New Haven: American Oriental Society, 1953, s.v. *Tigrā*." }, { "citation": "Behistun inscription (DB), Old Persian version (Darius's crossing of the Tigris)." } ] }, { "id": "tigris-sumerian-idigna", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/tigris#sumerian-idigna", "civilization": "tigris", "language": "sumerian", "original_text": "𒈦𒄘𒃼", "transliteration": "Idigna", "ipa": "*idigna", "literal_meaning": "the swift river (interpreted as \"running water\")", "family": "idigna", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -3000, "era_end": -1600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*The Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary* (ePSD2), s.v. *Idigna* (river name)." }, { "citation": "Edzard, Dietz Otto. *Reallexikon der Assyriologie*, s.v. *Tigris*." } ] }, { "id": "tigris-syriac-deqlath", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/tigris#syriac-deqlath", "civilization": "tigris", "language": "syriac", "original_text": "ܕܩܠܬ", "transliteration": "Deqlaṯ", "ipa": "/ˈdɛqlaθ/", "literal_meaning": "the Tigris", "family": "idigna", "derived_from": "tigris-imperial-aramaic-diglat", "era_start": 150, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Peshitta, Genesis 2:14; Daniel 10:4 (ܕܩܠܬ)." }, { "citation": "Payne Smith, R. *Thesaurus Syriacus*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879–1901, s.v. ܕܩܠܬ." } ] }, { "id": "troy-ancient-greek-ilios", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/troy#ancient-greek-ilios", "civilization": "troy", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Ἴλιος", "transliteration": "Ílios", "ipa": "/ˈiː.li.os/", "literal_meaning": "Troy (originally Wilios; the city of the founder Ilus)", "family": "ilios", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -800, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Homer, *Iliad*, passim (the poem's own subject, *Ílios*; whence *Iliás*)." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. *Ἴλιος*." }, { "citation": "Latacz, Joachim. *Troy and Homer: Towards a Solution of an Old Mystery*. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004." } ] }, { "id": "troy-ancient-greek-troia", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/troy#ancient-greek-troia", "civilization": "troy", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Τροία", "transliteration": "Troíā", "ipa": "/troˈi.aː/", "literal_meaning": "Troy (the city of the founder Tros)", "family": "troia", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -800, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Homer, *Iliad* 1.129, 6.315; *Odyssey* 1.2." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. *Τροία*." } ] }, { "id": "troy-hittite-truwisa", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/troy#hittite-truwisa", "civilization": "troy", "language": "hittite", "original_text": "𒋫𒊒𒄿𒊭", "transliteration": "Truwiša", "ipa": "*truˈwiʃa", "literal_meaning": "Truwisa (a place in northwest Anatolia, tentatively identified with Troia)", "family": "troia", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1400, "era_end": -1180, "confidence": "disputed", "sources": [ { "citation": "Beckman, Gary M., Trevor R. Bryce, and Eric H. Cline. *The Ahhiyawa Texts*. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2011." }, { "citation": "Bryce, Trevor. *The Trojans and Their Neighbours*. London: Routledge, 2006." } ] }, { "id": "troy-hittite-wilusa", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/troy#hittite-wilusa", "civilization": "troy", "language": "hittite", "original_text": "𒌷𒃾𒇻𒊭", "transliteration": "Wiluša", "ipa": "*ˈwiluʃa", "literal_meaning": "Wilusa (the Bronze Age kingdom identified with Troy/Ilios)", "family": "ilios", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1400, "era_end": -1180, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Beckman, Gary M., Trevor R. Bryce, and Eric H. Cline. *The Ahhiyawa Texts*. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2011 (Alaksandu treaty, CTH 76)." }, { "citation": "Bryce, Trevor. *The Kingdom of the Hittites*. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005." }, { "citation": "Latacz, Joachim. *Troy and Homer: Towards a Solution of an Old Mystery*. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004." } ] }, { "id": "troy-latin-ilium", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/troy#latin-ilium", "civilization": "troy", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Ilium", "transliteration": "Ilium", "ipa": "/ˈiː.li.um/", "literal_meaning": "Troy (the city of Ilus)", "family": "ilios", "derived_from": "troy-ancient-greek-ilios", "era_start": -50, "era_end": 500, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Virgil, *Aeneid* 1.68, 5.261, 6.64." }, { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Ilium*, *Ilios*." } ] }, { "id": "troy-latin-troia", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/troy#latin-troia", "civilization": "troy", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Troia", "transliteration": "Troia", "ipa": "/ˈtroi̯.a/", "literal_meaning": "Troy (the city of Tros)", "family": "troia", "derived_from": "troy-ancient-greek-troia", "era_start": -50, "era_end": 500, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Virgil, *Aeneid* 1.1, 2.625, 3.86." }, { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Troia*, *Tros*." } ] }, { "id": "tyre-akkadian-surru", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/tyre#akkadian-surru", "civilization": "tyre", "language": "akkadian", "original_text": "𒋩𒊒", "transliteration": "Ṣurru", "ipa": "/ˈsˤurru/", "literal_meaning": "Tyre (the Semitic \"rock\")", "family": "sor", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1350, "era_end": -640, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Moran, William L. *The Amarna Letters*. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992 (EA 146–155, the letters of Abimilki of Ṣurru)." }, { "citation": "*Chicago Assyrian Dictionary* (CAD), University of Chicago, Vol. Ṣ, s.v. *ṣurru*." } ] }, { "id": "tyre-ancient-greek-tyros", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/tyre#ancient-greek-tyros", "civilization": "tyre", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Τύρος", "transliteration": "Týros", "ipa": "/ˈty.ros/", "literal_meaning": "Tyre", "family": "sor", "derived_from": "tyre-phoenician-sor", "era_start": -500, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Herodotus, *Histories* 2.44." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. *Τύρος*." } ] }, { "id": "tyre-biblical-hebrew-sor", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/tyre#biblical-hebrew-sor", "civilization": "tyre", "language": "biblical-hebrew", "original_text": "צוֹר", "transliteration": "Ṣōr", "ipa": "/sˤoːr/", "literal_meaning": "rock; Tyre", "family": "sor", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1000, "era_end": -200, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament* (HALOT), Leiden: Brill, 1994–2000, s.v. *ṣōr*." }, { "citation": "2 Samuel 5:11; 1 Kings 5:1; Isaiah 23; Ezekiel 26–28; Amos 1:9–10; Psalm 87:4." } ] }, { "id": "tyre-classical-arabic-sur", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/tyre#classical-arabic-sur", "civilization": "tyre", "language": "classical-arabic", "original_text": "صور", "transliteration": "Ṣūr", "ipa": "/sˤuːr/", "literal_meaning": "Tyre (the Semitic \"rock\")", "family": "sor", "derived_from": null, "era_start": 700, "era_end": 1300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Yāqūt al-Ḥamawī. *Muʿjam al-Buldān*, s.v. صور." }, { "citation": "Lane, Edward William. *An Arabic-English Lexicon*. London: Williams and Norgate, 1863–1893." } ] }, { "id": "tyre-geez-tiros", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/tyre#geez-tiros", "civilization": "tyre", "language": "geez", "original_text": "ጢሮስ", "transliteration": "Ṭiros", "ipa": "/ˈtˤi.ros/", "literal_meaning": "Tyre", "family": "sor", "derived_from": "tyre-ancient-greek-tyros", "era_start": 350, "era_end": 700, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Ethiopic Old Testament (Ezekiel; Isaiah) and New Testament (Matthew 11; Mark 7)." }, { "citation": "Dillmann, August. *Lexicon Linguae Aethiopicae*. Leipzig: Weigel, 1865." } ] }, { "id": "tyre-jewish-babylonian-aramaic-sor", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/tyre#jewish-babylonian-aramaic-sor", "civilization": "tyre", "language": "jewish-babylonian-aramaic", "original_text": "צור", "transliteration": "Ṣor", "ipa": "/sˤor/", "literal_meaning": "Tyre (rock)", "family": "sor", "derived_from": null, "era_start": 200, "era_end": 700, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Sokoloff, Michael. *A Dictionary of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic*. Ramat-Gan: Bar Ilan University Press, 2002, s.v. צור." }, { "citation": "Babylonian Talmud, e.g. *Sullam Ṣor*, \"the Ladder of Tyre,\" the headland marking the northern boundary of the Land (b. *Gittin* 7b; *Shabbat* 26a)." } ] }, { "id": "tyre-latin-tyrus", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/tyre#latin-tyrus", "civilization": "tyre", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Tyrus", "transliteration": "Tyrus", "ipa": "/ˈty.rus/", "literal_meaning": "Tyre", "family": "sor", "derived_from": "tyre-ancient-greek-tyros", "era_start": -50, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Virgil, *Aeneid* 1.346 (Tyrii); Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 5.76." }, { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Tyrus*, *Tyrius*." } ] }, { "id": "tyre-phoenician-sor", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/tyre#phoenician-sor", "civilization": "tyre", "language": "phoenician", "original_text": "𐤑𐤓", "transliteration": "Ṣūr", "ipa": "*sˤuːr", "literal_meaning": "rock", "family": "sor", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1000, "era_end": -300, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Krahmalkov, Charles R. *Phoenician-Punic Dictionary*. Leuven: Peeters, 2000, s.v. *ṣr*." }, { "citation": "Phoenician coin legends and inscriptions of Tyre." } ] }, { "id": "tyre-syriac-sur", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/tyre#syriac-sur", "civilization": "tyre", "language": "syriac", "original_text": "ܨܘܪ", "transliteration": "Ṣur", "ipa": "/sˤur/", "literal_meaning": "Tyre (the Semitic \"rock\")", "family": "sor", "derived_from": null, "era_start": 150, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Peshitta, Ezekiel 26–28; Matthew 11:21–22; Mark 7:24, 31 (ܨܘܪ)." }, { "citation": "Payne Smith, R. *Thesaurus Syriacus*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879–1901, s.v. ܨܘܪ." } ] }, { "id": "tyre-ugaritic-sr", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/tyre#ugaritic-sr", "civilization": "tyre", "language": "ugaritic", "original_text": "𐎕𐎗", "transliteration": "Ṣr", "ipa": "*sˤuːr", "literal_meaning": "Tyre (rock)", "family": "sor", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1400, "era_end": -1190, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "del Olmo Lete, G., and J. Sanmartín. *A Dictionary of the Ugaritic Language in the Alphabetic Tradition*. Leiden: Brill, 2003, s.v. *ṣr*." } ] }, { "id": "ur-akkadian-uru", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/ur#akkadian-uru", "civilization": "ur", "language": "akkadian", "original_text": "𒋀𒀕𒆠", "transliteration": "Uru", "ipa": "/ˈuru/", "literal_meaning": "Ur (Akkadian reading of the Sumerian city-name)", "family": "ur", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -2350, "era_end": -540, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Reallexikon der Assyriologie und Vorderasiatischen Archäologie*, s.v. *Ur*." }, { "citation": "Schaudig, Hanspeter. *Die Inschriften Nabonids von Babylon und Kyros' des Großen*. Münster: Ugarit-Verlag, 2001." } ] }, { "id": "ur-biblical-hebrew-ur", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/ur#biblical-hebrew-ur", "civilization": "ur", "language": "biblical-hebrew", "original_text": "אוּר", "transliteration": "ʾŪr", "ipa": "/ʔuːr/", "literal_meaning": "Ur (of the Chaldees); the Hebrew word ʾūr also means \"flame\"", "family": "ur", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -700, "era_end": -200, "confidence": "disputed", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament* (HALOT), Leiden: Brill, 1994–2000, s.v. *ʾûr*." }, { "citation": "Genesis 11:28, 11:31; 15:7." }, { "citation": "Nehemiah 9:7." } ] }, { "id": "ur-latin-ur", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/ur#latin-ur", "civilization": "ur", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Ur", "transliteration": "Ur", "ipa": "/ur/", "literal_meaning": "Ur (of the Chaldeans)", "family": "ur", "derived_from": "ur-biblical-hebrew-ur", "era_start": 390, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "disputed", "sources": [ { "citation": "Jerome, *Vulgata*, Genesis 11:28, 11:31; 15:7 (*Ur Chaldaeorum*)." }, { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Ur*." } ] }, { "id": "ur-sumerian-urim", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/ur#sumerian-urim", "civilization": "ur", "language": "sumerian", "original_text": "𒋀𒀕𒆠", "transliteration": "Urim", "ipa": null, "literal_meaning": "Ur (etymology uncertain; the cult-city of the moon-god Nanna)", "family": "ur", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -2600, "era_end": -1600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*The Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary* (ePSD2), s.v. *Urim* (place name)." }, { "citation": "*Reallexikon der Assyriologie und Vorderasiatischen Archäologie*, s.v. *Ur*." }, { "citation": "Frayne, Douglas. *Ur III Period (2112–2004 BC)*. Royal Inscriptions of Mesopotamia, Early Periods 3/2. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1997." } ] }, { "id": "ur-syriac-ur", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/ur#syriac-ur", "civilization": "ur", "language": "syriac", "original_text": "ܐܘܪ", "transliteration": "ʾŪr", "ipa": "/ʔur/", "literal_meaning": "Ur (of the Chaldeans)", "family": "ur", "derived_from": "ur-biblical-hebrew-ur", "era_start": 150, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "disputed", "sources": [ { "citation": "Peshitta, Genesis 11:28, 11:31; 15:7 (ܐܘܪ ܕܟܠܕ̈ܝܐ, *ʾŪr da-kaldāyē*)." }, { "citation": "Payne Smith, R. *Thesaurus Syriacus*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879–1901, s.v. ܐܘܪ." } ] }, { "id": "uruk-akkadian-uruk", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/uruk#akkadian-uruk", "civilization": "uruk", "language": "akkadian", "original_text": "𒌷𒀕", "transliteration": "Uruk", "ipa": "/ˈuruk/", "literal_meaning": "Uruk (Akkadian form of Sumerian Unug)", "family": "unug", "derived_from": "uruk-sumerian-unug", "era_start": -2350, "era_end": -75, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Reallexikon der Assyriologie und Vorderasiatischen Archäologie*, s.v. *Uruk*." }, { "citation": "George, A. R. *The Babylonian Gilgamesh Epic: Introduction, Critical Edition and Cuneiform Texts*. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003." }, { "citation": "*Chicago Assyrian Dictionary* (CAD), University of Chicago, Vol. U/W." } ] }, { "id": "uruk-ancient-greek-orchoe", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/uruk#ancient-greek-orchoe", "civilization": "uruk", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Ὀρχόη", "transliteration": "Orchoē", "ipa": "/orˈkʰo.eː/", "literal_meaning": "Uruk, as known to the Greek geographers", "family": "unug", "derived_from": "uruk-akkadian-uruk", "era_start": -50, "era_end": 200, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Ptolemy, *Geography* 5.20." }, { "citation": "Strabo, *Geography* 16.1.6 (the Ὀρχηνοί, a Chaldean school of astronomers)." } ] }, { "id": "uruk-ancient-greek-orech", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/uruk#ancient-greek-orech", "civilization": "uruk", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Ὀρέχ", "transliteration": "Orech", "ipa": "/oˈrex/", "literal_meaning": "Erech (Uruk), the Septuagint transliteration of Hebrew Erech", "family": "unug", "derived_from": "uruk-biblical-hebrew-erech", "era_start": -250, "era_end": 100, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Septuagint, Genesis 10:10 (Ορεχ)." }, { "citation": "Wevers, John William. *Notes on the Greek Text of Genesis*. Society of Biblical Literature Septuagint and Cognate Studies 35. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1993." } ] }, { "id": "uruk-biblical-hebrew-erech", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/uruk#biblical-hebrew-erech", "civilization": "uruk", "language": "biblical-hebrew", "original_text": "אֶרֶךְ", "transliteration": "Erech", "ipa": "/ˈʔɛrɛx/", "literal_meaning": "Erech (Uruk)", "family": "unug", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -700, "era_end": -200, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament* (HALOT), Leiden: Brill, 1994–2000, s.v. *ʾerek*." }, { "citation": "Genesis 10:10." } ] }, { "id": "uruk-imperial-aramaic-erek", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/uruk#imperial-aramaic-erek", "civilization": "uruk", "language": "imperial-aramaic", "original_text": "ארך", "transliteration": "ʾErek", "ipa": "*ˈʔɛrɛk", "literal_meaning": "Erech/Uruk (attested through the gentilic Arkəwāyēʾ, \"the men of Erech\")", "family": "unug", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -500, "era_end": -350, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Ezra 4:9 (Aramaic), אַרְכְּוָיֵא *Arkəwāyēʾ*, \"the Erechites\"." }, { "citation": "Hoftijzer, J., and K. Jongeling. *Dictionary of the North-West Semitic Inscriptions*. Leiden: Brill, 1995." } ] }, { "id": "uruk-latin-orchoe", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/uruk#latin-orchoe", "civilization": "uruk", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Orchoē", "transliteration": "Orchoē", "ipa": "/orˈkʰo.eː/", "literal_meaning": "Uruk (Latin form of Greek Orchoē; the people as Orcheni)", "family": "unug", "derived_from": "uruk-ancient-greek-orchoe", "era_start": 50, "era_end": 200, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 6.123 (the *Orcheni*, a Chaldean sect)." }, { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Orchoe*." } ] }, { "id": "uruk-sumerian-unug", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/uruk#sumerian-unug", "civilization": "uruk", "language": "sumerian", "original_text": "𒀕𒆠", "transliteration": "Unug", "ipa": null, "literal_meaning": "Uruk (etymology uncertain; the seat of the goddess Inanna and the god An)", "family": "unug", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -3200, "era_end": -1600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*The Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary* (ePSD2), s.v. *Unug* (place name)." }, { "citation": "*Reallexikon der Assyriologie und Vorderasiatischen Archäologie*, s.v. *Uruk*." }, { "citation": "Englund, Robert K. *Archaic Bookkeeping: Early Writing and Techniques of Economic Administration in the Ancient Near East*. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993." } ] }, { "id": "uruk-syriac-erech", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/uruk#syriac-erech", "civilization": "uruk", "language": "syriac", "original_text": "ܐܪܟ", "transliteration": "Erech", "ipa": "/ˈʔɛrɛx/", "literal_meaning": "Erech (Uruk)", "family": "unug", "derived_from": "uruk-biblical-hebrew-erech", "era_start": 150, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Peshitta, Genesis 10:10 (ܐܪܟ)." }, { "citation": "Payne Smith, R. *Thesaurus Syriacus*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879–1901." } ] }, { "id": "veii-ancient-greek-ouioi", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/veii#ancient-greek-ouioi", "civilization": "veii", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Οὐιοί", "transliteration": "Ouioí", "ipa": "/u.iˈoi/", "literal_meaning": "Veii", "family": "veii", "derived_from": "veii-latin-veii", "era_start": -50, "era_end": 100, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Dionysius of Halicarnassus, *Roman Antiquities* 2.54 (Οὐιοί); Strabo, *Geography* 5.2 (the variant Οὐηίοι)." } ] }, { "id": "veii-etruscan-vei", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/veii#etruscan-vei", "civilization": "veii", "language": "etruscan", "original_text": "𐌅𐌄𐌉", "transliteration": "*Vei", "ipa": "*wei", "literal_meaning": "Veii (from the goddess Vei)", "family": "veii", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -600, "era_end": -396, "confidence": "reconstructed", "sources": [ { "citation": "Inscriptions to the goddess Vei from the Campetti sanctuary at Veii; Bonfante, Giuliano, and Larissa Bonfante. *The Etruscan Language: An Introduction*. Rev. ed. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2002." } ] }, { "id": "veii-latin-veii", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/veii#latin-veii", "civilization": "veii", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Veiī", "transliteration": "Veiī", "ipa": "/ˈwe.jiː/", "literal_meaning": "Veii", "family": "veii", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -750, "era_end": -100, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Livy, *Ab Urbe Condita* 5 (the siege and fall of Veii); Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Veii*, *Veiens*." } ] }, { "id": "xiongnu-classical-chinese-xianyun", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/xiongnu#classical-chinese-xianyun", "civilization": "xiongnu", "language": "classical-chinese", "original_text": "獫狁", "transliteration": "Xiǎnyǔn", "ipa": null, "literal_meaning": null, "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": -800, "era_end": -600, "confidence": "disputed", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Shijing* (Book of Odes), *Xiaoya*, odes 采薇 (Caiwei) and 六月 (Liuyue)." }, { "citation": "Sima Qian, *Shiji* 110 (tracing the Xiongnu to earlier northern peoples)." } ] }, { "id": "xiongnu-classical-chinese-xiongnu", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/xiongnu#classical-chinese-xiongnu", "civilization": "xiongnu", "language": "classical-chinese", "original_text": "匈奴", "transliteration": "Xiōngnú", "ipa": null, "literal_meaning": null, "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": -300, "era_end": 100, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Sima Qian, *Shiji* 110 (\"Account of the Xiongnu\")." }, { "citation": "*Hanshu* 94 (\"Memoir on the Xiongnu\")." } ] }, { "id": "xiongnu-classical-chinese-xunyu", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/xiongnu#classical-chinese-xunyu", "civilization": "xiongnu", "language": "classical-chinese", "original_text": "葷粥", "transliteration": "Xūnyù", "ipa": null, "literal_meaning": null, "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1000, "era_end": -600, "confidence": "disputed", "sources": [ { "citation": "Sima Qian, *Shiji* 110 (the Xiongnu descended from Chunwei, known in high antiquity as the *Xūnyù*)." }, { "citation": "*Mengzi* (Mencius) 1B.3 (King Tai and the Xūnyù)." } ] }, { "id": "yamuna-ancient-greek-diamouna", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/yamuna#ancient-greek-diamouna", "civilization": "yamuna", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Διάμουνα", "transliteration": "Diámouna", "ipa": "/diˈa.mu.na/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "yamuna", "derived_from": "yamuna-sanskrit-yamuna", "era_start": 100, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Ptolemy, *Geography* 7.1 (the Diamouna among the rivers of India intra Gangem)." } ] }, { "id": "yamuna-ancient-greek-iomanes", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/yamuna#ancient-greek-iomanes", "civilization": "yamuna", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Ἰωμάνης", "transliteration": "Iōmánēs", "ipa": "/iɔːˈma.nɛːs/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "yamuna", "derived_from": "yamuna-sanskrit-yamuna", "era_start": -300, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Arrian, *Indica* 8 and *Anabasis of Alexander* 5 (drawing on Megasthenes); the river of the Sourasenoi between Methora and Klisobora." } ] }, { "id": "yamuna-classical-chinese-yanmouna", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/yamuna#classical-chinese-yanmouna", "civilization": "yamuna", "language": "classical-chinese", "original_text": "閻牟那", "transliteration": "Yán móu nà", "ipa": null, "literal_meaning": "the Yamunā; a Buddhist phonetic transcription", "family": "yamuna", "derived_from": "yamuna-sanskrit-yamuna", "era_start": 400, "era_end": 650, "confidence": "disputed", "sources": [ { "citation": "Soothill, William E., and Lewis Hodous. *A Dictionary of Chinese Buddhist Terms*. London: Kegan Paul, 1937, s.v. 閻牟那 (the Yamunā)." } ] }, { "id": "yamuna-latin-iomanes", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/yamuna#latin-iomanes", "civilization": "yamuna", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Iomanes", "transliteration": "Iomanes", "ipa": "/ioˈmaː.neːs/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "yamuna", "derived_from": "yamuna-ancient-greek-iomanes", "era_start": -50, "era_end": 400, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 6.63 (the Iomanes flowing through the Palibothri, between Methora and Chrysobora, into the Ganges)." } ] }, { "id": "yamuna-sanskrit-yamuna", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/yamuna#sanskrit-yamuna", "civilization": "yamuna", "language": "sanskrit", "original_text": "यमुना", "transliteration": "Yamunā", "ipa": "/jɐˈmuː.naː/", "literal_meaning": "the Yamuna; the river-goddess Yamunā, twin of Yama", "family": "yamuna", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -1500, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Ṛgveda* 10.75.5 (the Nadīstuti, naming the Yamunā beside the Gaṅgā) and 5.52.17." }, { "citation": "Monier-Williams, Monier. *A Sanskrit-English Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1899, s.v. *yamunā*." } ] }, { "id": "yuezhi-ancient-greek-tocharoi", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/yuezhi#ancient-greek-tocharoi", "civilization": "yuezhi", "language": "ancient-greek", "original_text": "Τόχαροι", "transliteration": "Tócharoi", "ipa": "/ˈto.kʰa.roi̯/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "tochari", "derived_from": null, "era_start": -130, "era_end": 100, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Strabo, *Geographica* 11.8.2 (the nomads who took Bactria from the Greeks: Asioi, Pasianoi, Tócharoi, Sakaraûloi)." }, { "citation": "Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. *A Greek-English Lexicon* (LSJ). 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940, s.v. Τόχαροι." } ] }, { "id": "yuezhi-classical-chinese-yuezhi", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/yuezhi#classical-chinese-yuezhi", "civilization": "yuezhi", "language": "classical-chinese", "original_text": "月氏", "transliteration": "Yuèzhī", "ipa": null, "literal_meaning": null, "family": null, "derived_from": null, "era_start": -200, "era_end": 100, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Sima Qian, *Shiji* 123 (\"Account of Dayuan,\" the mission of Zhang Qian)." }, { "citation": "*Hanshu* 96 (\"Memoir on the Western Regions\"), the Great Yuezhi (*Dà Yuèzhī* 大月氏)." } ] }, { "id": "yuezhi-latin-tochari", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/yuezhi#latin-tochari", "civilization": "yuezhi", "language": "latin", "original_text": "Tochari", "transliteration": "Tochari", "ipa": "/ˈto.kʰa.riː/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "tochari", "derived_from": "yuezhi-ancient-greek-tocharoi", "era_start": -50, "era_end": 200, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "Pompeius Trogus, in Justin, *Epitome*, Prologues 41–42 (the *Tochari* and the fall of Bactria); Pliny the Elder, *Naturalis Historia* 6.55." }, { "citation": "Lewis, Charlton T., and Charles Short. *A Latin Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879, s.v. *Tochari*." } ] }, { "id": "yuezhi-sanskrit-tukhara", "url": "https://onomastikon.org/civilizations/yuezhi#sanskrit-tukhara", "civilization": "yuezhi", "language": "sanskrit", "original_text": "तुखार", "transliteration": "Tukhāra", "ipa": "/tuˈkʰaː.rɐ/", "literal_meaning": null, "family": "tochari", "derived_from": null, "era_start": 0, "era_end": 600, "confidence": "attested", "sources": [ { "citation": "*Mahābhārata* (the *Tukhāra* among the northern peoples); the *Purāṇas* and the *Bṛhatsaṃhitā* of Varāhamihira." }, { "citation": "Monier-Williams, Monier. *A Sanskrit-English Dictionary*. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1899, s.v. *Tukhāra*." } ] } ] }